Zoology

Zoology, 11th edition by Miller and Tupper - List of Learning Outcomes

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Chapter 17

Chapter 18

Chapter 19

Chapter 20

Chapter 21

Chapter 22

Chapter 23

Chapter 24

Chapter 25

Chapter 26

Chapter 27

Chapter 28

Chapter 29

Section 1.1

Section 1.2

Section 1.3

Section 2.1

Section 2.2

Section 2.3

Section 2.4

Section 2.5

Section 2.6

Section 2.7

Section 2.8

Section 3.1

Section 3.2

Section 3.3

Section 3.4

Section 3.5

Section 4.1

Section 4.2

Section 4.3

Section 4.4

Section 4.5

Section 4.6

Section 5.1

Section 5.2

Section 5.3

Section 5.4

Section 5.5

Section 5.6

Section 5.7

Section 6.1

Section 6.2

Section 6.3

Section 6.4

Section 6.5

Section 6.6

Section 6.7

Section 7.1

Section 7.2

Section 8.1

Section 8.2

Section 8.3

Section 8.4

Section 9.1

Section 9.2

Section 9.3

Section 9.4

Section 9.5

Section 10.1

Section 10.2

Section 10.3

Section 10.4

Section 10.5

Section 11.1

Section 11.2

Section 11.3

Section 11.4

Section 11.5

Section 11.6

Section 11.7

Section 11.8

Section 11.9

Section 11.10

Section 11.11

Section 12.1

Section 12.2

Section 12.3

Section 12.4

Section 12.5

Section 12.6

Section 13.1

Section 13.2

Section 13.3

Section 13.4

Section 14.1

Section 14.2

Section 14.3

Section 14.4

Section 14.5

Section 14.6

Section 14.7

Section 14.8

Section 14.9

Section 15.1

Section 15.2

Section 15.3

Section 15.4

Section 16.1

Section 16.2

Section 16.3

Section 16.4

Section 17.1

Section 17.2

Section 17.3

Section 18.1

Section 18.2

Section 18.3

Section 18.4

Section 19.1

Section 19.2

Section 19.3

Section 19.4

Section 19.5

Section 20.1

Section 20.2

Section 20.3

Section 20.4

Section 21.1

Section 21.2

Section 22.1

Section 22.2

Section 22.3

Section 22.4

Section 23.1

Section 23.2

Section 23.3

Section 24.1

Section 24.2

Section 24.3

Section 24.4

Section 24.5

Section 24.6

Section 24.7

Section 25.1

Section 25.2

Section 25.3

Section 25.4

Section 25.5

Section 25.6

Section 25.7

Section 25.8

Section 25.9

Section 26.1

Section 26.2

Section 26.3

Section 26.4

Section 26.5

Section 26.6

Section 26.7

Section 26.8

Section 27.1

Section 27.2

Section 27.3

Section 27.4

Section 27.5

Section 27.6

Section 27.7

Section 28.1

Section 28.2

Section 28.3

Section 28.4

Section 29.1

Section 29.2

Section 29.3

Section 29.4

Section 29.5

Section 29.6

1. Differentiate various approaches to the science of zoology.

1. Appraise the importance of evolution as a unifying concept in zoology.

2. Explain how our taxonomic system is hierarchical.

1. Use an example to generate an explanation for the importance of ecology as a unifying concept in zoology.

2. Analyze the relationships between human population growth and threats to world resources.

1. Analyze the concept depicted by cell theory that states (in part) “cells are the basic unit of structure and function of life.”

2. Describe three elements of cell structure common to all cells.

1. Discuss how our understanding of the structure of the plasma membrane informs our understanding of the following membrane functions: restricting passage of some polar molecules but promoting transport of other polar molecules, promoting the passage of most nonpolar molecules, and recognition of specific types of cells by other cells (e.g., an egg by a sperm cell).

2. Differentiate non-transporter-mediated membrane exchanges from carrier-mediated exchanges, explaining why each type of exchange is important for a cell.

1. Cellular functions are usually carried out in multistep metabolic pathways. Use examples from the reactions of cellular respiration to explain why these multistep pathways are advantageous, and to explain the roles of enzymes and energy in these pathways.

2. Hypothesize on possible reasons that animals are aerobic organisms rather than anaerobic like some bacteria. Explain how the reactions of cellular respiration provide support for your hypothesis.

3. Explain the role of mitochondria in animal cells.

1. Assess the related functions of chromatin, the nuclear envelope, ribosomes, and vaults.

1. Explain why the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, endosomes, and lysosomes are functionally related and comprise the endomembrane system.

2. Contrast the roles of exocytosis in the functions of the cells of the pancreas (which produces and secretes digestive enzymes), and endocytosis in the function of certain white blood cells (which engulf and destroy bacteria intracellularly).

1. Explain how peroxisomes protect animals from degradative processes.

1. Contrast the structure and function of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.

2. Compare and contrast the structure and function of cilia and flagella.

1. Describe the relationships of tissues to organs and organs to organ systems.

2. Contrast the functions of the four types of tissues found in animals.

1. Critique the statement that one cannot understand genetics without understanding how DNA is packaged within cells.

2. Differentiate between sex chromosomes and autosomes in a diploid animal.

3. Explain how chromosome numbers can vary in animal cells.

1. Contrast the cell-cycle activities of an embryonic cell and a mature bone cell in a way that explains the importance of these activities for each type of cell.

2. Explain why the events of mitotic cell division result in daughter cells being identical to parental cells.

3. Hypothesize on the outcome of the cell cycle when cell-cycle control mechanisms fail.

1. Contrast the importance of meiotic cell division and mitotic cell division in animals.

2. Explain why meiotic cell division produces haploid cells after the first and second divisions.

3. Explain the importance of prophase I to the outcome of meiosis.

4. Contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

1. Explain the structure of DNA and how that structure allows the molecule to undergo replication.

2. Explain how the genetic code in DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA and then translated into protein.

3. Use examples to justify the statement that most changes in DNA are detrimental for an organism but some are vitally important for the evolution of populations.

1. Explain and apply Mendelian principles.

2. Predict the results of crosses involving incompletely dominant and codominant alleles.

3. Relate dominance concepts to the molecular basis of inheritance.

1. Evaluate how scientific thought on evolutionary change prior to the work of Charles Darwin influenced Darwin’s thinking.

2. Compare Lamarckian ideas of evolutionary change to modern epigenetic ideas of change.

1. Describe the circumstances that led to Charles Darwin becoming a naturalist on HMS Beagle.

2. Describe the dates of the voyage of HMS Beagle and the path taken by the ship during its voyage.

1. List the sources of evidence that convinced Charles Darwin that evolutionary change occurs.

2. Formulate a hypothetical scenario that illustrates the concept of adaptive radiation.

1. Describe the four requirements for evolution to occur by natural selection.

2. Explain how reproductive success, phenotype, and environment are related to evolutionary adaptation.

3. Describe the contributions made by Thomas Malthus and Alfred Russel Wallace to the development of evolutionary theory.

1. Compare the methods and information provided by relative and absolute dating techniques.

2. Explain two hypotheses regarding the occurrence of mass extinction events.

1. Compare microevolution and macroevolution.

2. Describe the sources of evidence for macroevolution.

3. Describe the kind of information contained in a phylogenetic tree and how that information is represented.

1. Relate the concept of a gene pool to a population of animals.

2. Explain why different individuals within a population are genetically different from each other.

1. Justify the statement “most populations are evolving.”

1. Explain the four mechanisms of evolutionary change.

2. Compare the founder effect and the bottleneck effect, explaining why each is an example of neutral evolution and genetic drift.

3. Explain how selection pressure operates in each mode of natural selection.

4. Critique the statement “Natural selection always eliminates deleterious alleles from populations.”

1. Assess the usefulness of definitions of a species.

2. Compare the isolating mechanisms involved in each of the three forms of speciation.

1. Compare phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium models of evolution.

1. Hypothesize the differences between a comparison of the nonconserved DNA sequences of a horse and a zebra, and the nonconserved DNA sequences of a frog and a fish.

2. Explain the role of gene duplication in the evolution of new genes.

1. Explain the concept of mosaic evolution.

1. Differentiate biotic and abiotic ecological factors in an animal’s habitat.

2. Describe how energy is used by a heterotroph.

3. Contrast the survival strategies of endotherms and ectotherms when environmental conditions become unfavorable and food resources become scarce.

1. Compare survivorship attributes of primate and grasshopper populations.

2. Compare populations of animals during exponential growth phases to populations of animals during carrying capacity phases of logistic growth.

3. Differentiate between density-independent and density-dependent factors in population regulation.

4. Explain why intraspecific competition is often intense.

1. Discuss how herbivory, predation, and interspecific competition influence populations.

2. Explain coevolution.

3. Compare the different forms of symbiosis.

4. Assess the usefulness of visual appearance, odors, sounds, and behaviors either to hide one animal from another animal or to advertise properties of one animal to another animal.

1. Explain the concept of an ecological community.

2. Explain how the concept of an ecological niche is valuable in helping visualize the role of an animal in the environment.

3. Differentiate between seral and climax community stages in terms of community stability and biodiversity.

1. Compare ecosystem and community concepts.

2. Use the laws of thermodynamics to justify the observation that energy pathways in food webs are short.

3. Assess the vulnerability of animals at various trophic levels regarding their risk from heavy metal pollution.

1. Explain the differences between hydrological, gaseous, and sedimentary biogeochemical cycles.

2. Analyze the effect of extravagant burning of fossil fuels and deforestation on the carbon cycle.

1. Compare the age structure of a developed country and a developing country.

2. Explain the relationship between overpopulation and depletion of world resources.

3. Analyze the threats to Earth’s biodiversity.

1. Justify the statement that “taxonomy reflects phylogeny.”

2. Explain how the taxonomic hierarchy and names of animals reflect evolutionary relationships.

3. Assess the kinds of data used in investigating animal phylogenies.

4. Compare the goals and methods of phylogenetic systematics and evolutionary systematics.

1. Analyze the selective advantages that asymmetry, radial symmetry, and bilateral symmetry provide animals that possess these patterns of organization.

2. Evaluate the statement “Most animals possess either diploblastic or triploblastic tissue-level organization.”

3. Differentiate three forms of triploblastic tissue organization.

4. Analyze the reasons for the prevalence of body cavities in animals.

1. Describe the conditions on Earth before life appeared.

2. Evaluate the evidence that give clues to the presence of the earliest life on Earth.

1. Compose a scenario for the spontaneous origin of life given the atmospheric and oceanic conditions present on the archaean earth.

2. Describe the relationships between the three domains of living organisms and assess the roles of horizontal gene transfer models and endosymbiosis in establishing these relationships.

3. Assess the roles of endosymbiosis, cellular compartmentalization, energy processing, and molecular oxygen in the evolution of the first eukaryotic cells.

1. Explain why multicellularity is selectively advantageous for large eukaryotic organisms.

2. Assess the evidence that links animal origins to the opisthokont clade of Eukarya.

3. Explain the contribution of Ediacaran and Cambrian period fossils to our knowledge of animal origins.

1. Explain what is implied in the term “basal phyla.”

2. Assess the embryological and morphological evidence for the establishment of two major groups of bilateral animal phyla.

1. Explain the morphological and genomic features common to all animals.

2. Contrast the problems encountered in assigning a body-organization status to the basal animal phyla.

1. Describe the ecological distribution and characteristics of members of the phylum Porifera.

2. Analyze the functions carried out by components of the sponge body wall.

3. Justify the statement that “increased poriferan body size and increased body wall complexity go hand-in-hand.”

4. Compare the forms of sexual and asexual reproduction present in members of the Porifera.

1. Describe characteristics of members of the phylum Cnidaria.

2. Explain how the diploblastic body wall of members of the phylum Cnidaria is used in support and locomotion.

3. Compare feeding and digestion strategies within the cnidarian classes.

4. Explain the function of cnidarian nervous and sensory structures.

5. Compare the life histories of members of the five cnidarian classes.

1. Describe the ecological distribution and characteristics of members of the phylum Ctenophora.

2. Compare the body organization of a ctenophoran to a scyphozoan medusa.

3. Explain the feeding and reproductive functions in members of the phylum Ctenophora.

1. Assess the statement that members of the phylum Ctenophora may comprise a sister group to all other animals.

2. Assess the evolutionary pressures that influenced the evolution of sponge body forms.

3. Describe evolutionary relationships within the Cnidaria.

1. Assess the evidence that supports the establishment of Lophotrochozoa as a monophyletic lineage.

1. Describe characteristics of members of the phylum Platyhelminthes.

2. Assess the extent of the development of platyhelminth characteristics in each of the phylum's four classes.

3. Describe how the life cycles of symbiotic platyhelminths promote the survival of each species.

4. Propose possible control measures for platyhelminth parasites based on a knowledge of each parasite's life cycle.

1. Describe one salient feature of each of the following smaller platyzoan phyla: Gastrotricha, Micrognathozoa, Gnathostomulida, Rotifera, and Acanthocephala.

1. Describe one distinctive feature for members of the phyla Cycliophora, Nemertea, Ectoprocta, and Brachiopoda.

1. Describe the state of knowledge regarding evolutionary relationships among the Lophotrochozoa.

2. Assess the validity of the traditional platyhelminth classes.

1. Give examples of, and describe the prevalence of, members of the phylum Mollusca.

2. Discuss the relationship of the Mollusca to other animal phyla.

1. Hypothesize about the structure of a hypothetical newly discovered class of molluscs.

1. Compare members of the class Gastropoda to the generalized molluscan body form.

2. Explain the structure, function, and reproduction of members of the class Gastropoda.

3. Describe the distribution and ecology of prosobranch, opisthobranch, and pulmonate gastropods.

1. Compare members of the class Bivalvia to the generalized molluscan body form.

2. Explain the structure, function, and reproduction of members of the class Bivalvia.

3. Describe bivalve diversity and ecology.

4. Analyze the effect of sediment build-up resulting from erosion on river ecosystems containing bivalve populations.

1. Compare members of the class Cephalopoda to the generalized molluscan body form.

2. Explain the structure, function, and reproduction of members of the class Cephalopoda.

3. Describe cephalopod diversity and ecology.

4. Justify the statement that “members of the class Cephalopoda are the most complex molluscs.”

1. Compare members of the class Polyplacophora to the generalized molluscan body form.

1. Compare members of the class Scaphopoda to the generalized molluscan body form.

1. Compare members of the class Monoplacophora to the generalized molluscan body form.

1. Compare members of the class Solenogastres to the generalized molluscan body form.

1. Compare members of the class Caudofoveata to the generalized molluscan body form.

1. Analyze the relationships among molluscan classes.

1. Describe the relationships of members of the Annelida to other animal phyla.

2. Explain the revisions of annelid taxonomy brought about through molecular analyses.

3. Explain the benefits of metamerism for an annelid.

1. Describe how metamerism influences annelid structure and locomotion.

2. Characterize digestive, nervous, and excretory systems of annelids.

3. Compare the closed circulatory system of an annelid worm to the open circulatory system of a bivalve mollusc.

4. Describe reproductive strategies of members of the Annelida.

1. Characterize members of the clade Errantia.

2. Describe the life histories of Nereis and Glycera.

3. Hypothesize on the importance of the timing and occurrence of reproductive swarming in many errantians.

1. Contrast the clades Errantia and Sedentaria.

2. Compare the oligochaete body form and the leech body form.

3. Analyze the earthworm body form in terms of adaptations to a largely subterranean lifestyle.

4. Compare and contrast the methods of fertilization and development of Nereis with members of the clade Clitellata.

1. Describe the phylogenetic status and lifestyles of the Chaetopteridae and the sipunculans.

1. Formulate a conversation between a modern taxonomist and a taxonomist who worked 100 years ago as they compare their perceptions of annelid phylogeny.

1. Describe the unifying features that define the clade Ecdysozoa.

2. Describe one common function of the cuticle in ecdysozoan phyla covered in this chapter.

1. Explain how the body wall and pseudocoelom of a nematode influence locomotion of a nematode.

2. Describe the body systems involved in maintenance functions of nematodes.

3. Describe the reproductive system and development of nematodes.

4. Contrast the life cycles of common nematode parasites with the life cycles of digenetic flukes.

1. Characterize members of the phyla Nematomorpha, Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera.

1. Describe the relationships of the ecdysozoan phyla and controversies associated with this phylogeny.

2. Describe phylogeny within the Nematoda.

1. Describe characteristics of members of the phylum Arthropoda.

2. Explain the phylogenetic relationships of arthropods to other phyla.

1. Compare arthropod metamerism with annelid metamerism.

1. Compare the structure and function of the arthropod exoskeleton or cuticle to that present in other ecdysozoans.

2. Compare two methods of hardening of the arthropod procuticle.

3. Describe the processes involved with arthropod ecdysis.

4. Assess the statement: Before, during, and after ecdysis, an arthropod is never without its exoskeleton.

1. Compare the functions of the arthropod hemocoel to the functions of the annelid coelom.

1. Explain how metamorphosis contributed to arthropod success.

1. Compose a response to someone showing you a trilobite fossil and asking, “What is this?”

1. Describe the body forms of members of the subphylum Chelicerata.

2. Contrast the function of the following pairs of arachnid structures: coxal glands vs. Malpighian tubules and book lungs vs. tracheae.

1. Describe the characteristics of members of the class Diplopoda.

2. Describe the characteristics of members of the class Chilopoda.

3. Characterize the body forms and habitats of members of the classes Symphyla and Pauropoda.

1. Explain why ancestral chelicerates are so very important in arthropod evolution.

1. Describe the factors that promoted the evolutionary dominance of crustaceans in freshwater and marine environments and the dominance of insects in terrestrial habitats.

1. Describe the characteristics of members of the subphylum Crustacea.

2. Describe adaptations for aquatic habitats seen in the decapod malacostracans.

3. Compare members of the orders Euphausiacea, Isopoda, Amphipoda, and Cladocera.

4. Compare members of the classes Branchiopoda and Maxillopoda.

1. Explain how you would distinguish an insect from any other arthropod.

2. Compare the function of body regions of insects to the function of body regions of crustaceans.

3. Describe the maintenance functions of insects including the following: nutrition and digestion, gas exchange, circulation and temperature regulation, nervous and sensory functions, and reproduction and development.

4. Hypothesize on the prevalence of social organization in the Hymenoptera and Isoptera.

5. Evaluate the impact of insects on human populations.

6. Describe members of the following insect orders: Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera.

1. Describe the clade Panarthropoda.

2. Explain the evolutionary relationships among the arthropod subphyla.

3. Describe what is known about the origin and early evolution of the insects.

1. Compare the evolutionary relationships between the sea stars and chordates, such as fishes and mammals, versus the evolutionary relationships between the sea stars and crustaceans.

2. Explain the relationships between the Echinodermata and the Hemichordata.

1. Characterize members of the phylum Echinodermata.

2. Contrast the body forms present in the echinoderm classes.

3. Compare the water-vascular systems of members of the classes Echinoidea, Asteroidea, and Crinoidea.

4. Contrast the following maintenance functions in members of the echinoderm classes: nutrition and digestion, gas exchange and internal transport, and nervous functions.

5. Describe echinoderm reproductive functions, including larva forms and development.

1. Describe the characteristics of the members of the phylum Hemichordata.

2. Compare the body forms and maintenance functions of members of the classes Enteropneusta and Pterobranchia.

3. Contrast reproduction and development of members of the classes Enteropneusta and Pterobranchia.

1. Explain the evidence that supports the relationships between the Hemichordata, Echinodermata, and Chordata.

2. Explain why the mouth-down orientation seen in most echinoderms is believed to be a derived character state.

3. Describe the evolutionary relationships among echinoderm classes.

1. Describe the evolutionary relationships of the Chordata to other animal phyla.

1. Describe the characteristics of members of the phylum Chordata.

2. Compare adult tunicates to the generalized chordate body form.

3. Compare adult cephalochordates to the generalized chordate body form.

1. Describe the relationships between members of the three chordate subphyla.

2. Characterize members of the largest craniate infraphylum, Vertebrata.

3. Hypothesize on the body forms of the basal deuterostome and the common deuterostome ancestor of the three chordate clades.

1. Explain the phylogenetic relationships among classes of extant fishlike craniates.

2. Justify the conclusion that the subphylum Craniata is at least 500 million years old.

3. Hypothesize on the evolutionary events and modifications that led to diversification of the fishes.

1. Explain how you would determine whether or not an eel-like fish presented to you was a member of the class Myxini, Petromyzontida, or Actinopterygii.

2. Describe the characteristics of members of the class Chondrichthyes.

3. Distinguish between members of the class Sarcopterygii and members of the class Actinopterygii.

1. Discuss adaptations to life in water that are present fish locomotor, digestive, nervous, and sensory systems.

2. Explain how adaptations to life in water influenced the structure and physiology of exchange systems (circulation, gas exchange, ion regulation, and excretion) of fishes.

3. Describe and reproductive strategies observed in selected marine and freshwater fishes.

1. Assess the importance of the ancient Tetrapodomorpha in our view of vertebrate evolution.

1. Justify the statement that “any gaps in evidence documenting the fish-to-amphibian transition are essentially gone.”

2. Hypothesize why Ichthyostega likely resembled stem tetrapods.

3. Describe the key features that link Temnospondyli to Lissamphibia.

4. Describe the extant vertebrate groups that comprise the tetrapod lineage.

1. Describe characteristics of members of the order Gymnophiona.

2. Describe characteristics of members of the order Caudata.

3. Describe characteristics of members of the order Anura.

1. Justify the statement that “the double life of amphibians results from adaptations of virtually every body system of lissamphibians.”

2. Justify the statement that “the single undivided ventricle of the amphibian heart might seem like an evolutionary step backward, but in fact it is an adaptation to the amphibian way of life.”

3. Compare reproductive strategies in members of the class Caudata to reproductive strategies of members of the class Anura.

1. Explain why amphibians are especially vulnerable to environmental disturbances.

2. Assess possible conservation measures that can help preserve amphibian populations.

3. Hypothesize the ecological effects of large-scale amphibian extinctions.

1. Describe the three sets of evolutionary changes in the sarcopterygian lineage that allowed movement onto land.

2. Explain how the anatomical changes present in Anthracosauria and Diadectomorpha enhanced survival on land.

3. Describe the relationship between ancestral amphibians and early amniotes.

1. Justify the statement that “the amniotic egg provided solutions that made development apart from external watery environments possible.”

2. Compare amniote taxonomy before and after the application of cladistic methods.

3. Describe the hypotheses of amniote evolution.

1. Describe the characteristics of the nonavian reptiles.

2. Compare the characteristics of the members of the orders Testudines, Crocodylia, and Squamata.

3. Justify the inclusion of superficially different snakes and lizards in a single order, Squamata.

1. Discuss the structural and physiological adaptations that make life apart from an abundant water supply possible in nonavian reptiles.

2. Compare the feeding mechanism of snakes to the feeding mechanisms of other nonavian reptiles.

3. Compare the reproductive biology of crocodiles to reproduction by other nonavian reptiles.

1. Describe the evolutionary fate of the archosaur branch of the reptilian lineage.

2. Describe the evolutionary fate of the synapsid branch of the amniote lineage.

1. Assess the anatomical similarities and differences between the nonavian and avian reptiles.

2. Explain how evolutionary changes in ancient theropods led to powered flight and the conserved body form of modern birds.

1. Describe how avian reptile body systems are adapted to support the energy requirements and mechanics of flight.

2. Describe the physiology of flight from takeoff to soaring and steering.

3. Hypothesize on how the production of precocial and altricial young has contributed to the evolutionary success of the avian reptiles.

1. Describe some of the key evolutionary changes in synapsid anatomy that led to the eventual evolution of modern mammals.

2. Assess the importance of two mass-extinction events in the evolution of modern mammals.

1. Explain the role of continental movements in influencing mammalian evolution.

2. Assess the costs and benefits of the prototherian, metatherian, and eutherian reproductive strategies.

1. Justify the statement that “many of the characteristic (often unique) mammalian functions are tied to the structure and functions of mammalian integument and musculoskeletal systems.”

2. Explain how mammalian nutritive, exchange, and nervous system functions have contributed to the evolutionarily success the mammals.

3. Justify the statement that “the uniqueness of mammals is tied to their behavioral and reproductive functions.”

1. Explain the global conditions that influenced the evolution of bipedal locomotion in early apes in Africa.

2. Describe a sequence of hominins and time frames that are important in understanding events of human evolution.

3. Describe the role of cultural evolution in the development of human societies.

1. Describe invertebrate integument and integumentary adaptations that provide protection in various invertebrate groups.

2. Contrast integumentary structure and function in fishes, amphibians, reptiles (including birds), and mammals.

3. Describe adaptations of the skin of amphibians, reptiles (including birds), and mammals for life in terrestrial environments.

4. Explain the difference between hair and nails.

1. Compare hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons.

2. Explain how animals with hydrostatic skeletons achieve movement, support, and locomotion.

3. Contrast the limitations and advantages of an invertebrate’s exoskeleton.

4. Describe mineralized tissues of invertebrates.

5. Contrast the structure and function of the endoskeletons of fishes and tetrapods.

1. Describe three types of nonmuscular movement.

2. Explain the sliding-filament mechanism of muscle contraction.

3. Compare the structure and function of the three types of muscle tissues.

1. Describe two properties of neurons.

2. Compare the three functional types of neurons within nervous systems.

1. Identify the ions involved in nerve impulse transmission and their relative concentrations inside and outside the neuron when the neuron is resting.

2. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses.

3. Explain the importance of the all-or-none law.

4. Assess the importance of saltatory conduction in the transmission of a nerve impulse.

1. Describe how coordination occurs in sponges.

2. Compare and contrast the nerve nets of cnidarians and echinoderms.

3. Analyze the evolutionary connection between cephalization and centralization in nervous systems and evolution of bilateral symmetry in animals.

1. Describe the organization of the brain in vertebrates.

2. Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

3. Evaluate the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

4. Describe the structure of the spinal cord of several vertebrates.

1. Describe the basic features of most sensory receptors.

2. Explain how receptors function as transducers.

1. Describe one function of each of the following invertebrate receptors: baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, georeceptors, hygroreceptors, phonoreceptors, photoreceptors, proprioceptors, tactile receptors, and thermoreceptors.

1. Compare and contrast the functions of sensory receptors whose physiology depend on the function of ampullary organs or hair cells.

2. Describe the functions of vertebrate tactile, chemical, and visual receptors.

1. Assess the selective pressures that favored the evolution of chemical messenger systems.

2. Compare the sources, transport routes, and destinations of the 5 types of chemical messengers found in animals.

1. Categorize hormones by their biochemical structures and by their effects on target cells.

2. Contrast the two types of hormonal feedback loops that are involved with regulating biological processes.

1. Explain how the signal carried by a peptide hormone induces a change in a target cell.

2. Explain how steroid hormones activate transcription.

1. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.

2. Compare mechanisms by which the secretion of classical hormones by endocrine glands is controlled.

1. Explain the roles of neuropeptides in invertebrate chemical regulation.

2. Discuss the range of functions hormones play in regulating invertebrate body systems.

3. Contrast the endocrine regulation of ecdysis in nematodes, crustaceans, and insects.

1. Describe how the similar neurosecretory and endocrine actions reflect the shared evolutionary pathways of the vertebrates.

2. Explain how thyroxine and melatonin are used by fishes and amphibians.

1. Describe the function of some of the unique endocrine glands found in birds but not mammals.

2. Describe the major amniote endocrine glands and their functions.

1. Other than the major endocrine glands, describe some other organs/tissues of mammals that produce hormones.

1. Compare the diversity of structure and function of animal endocrine systems to the diversity of animal nervous systems.

1. Compare and contrast the transport processes of invertebrates.

2. Describe hemolymph and give several of its functions.

1. Compare the functions of plasma with the function of serum.

2. Relate the structures of mature formed elements to their functions.

1. Compare the circulatory requirements of fishes and amphibians.

2. Assess the role of sarcopterygian fishes in the evolution of vertebrate circulatory systems.

1. Compare the pattern of circulation through mammalian and avian hearts.

2. Explain the origin and conduction of action potentials that initiate the beat of the mammalian heart.

3. Describe the events resulting in the generation of systolic and diastolic pressures of the heart.

1. Describe how the lymphatic system functions.

1. Compare and contrast the variety of respiratory systems found in animals.

2. Describe a book lung.

1. Analyze the importance of bimodal breathing in the evolutionary transition between aquatic and terrestrial environments.

2. Compare and contrast the mechanisms of gas exchange over cutaneous surfaces, gill surfaces, and lung surfaces.

1. Relate the mechanisms of gas exchange to structures of the human respiratory system.

2. Differentiate the mechanism of inhalation and the mechanism of exhalation.

3. Compare and contrast the four common respiratory pigments found in animals.

1. Categorize the different types of nutrition found in animals.

2. Explain how the loss of biosynthetic abilities can provide a selective advantage in animal evolution.

1. Justify the statement that a “mammal must have both micro-and macronutrients as well as vitamins in its diet.”

1. Compare and contrast extracellular and intracellular digestion.

1. Contrast the following pairs of feeding strategies: continuous vs. discontinuous feeding, suspension vs. deposit feeding, and herbivory vs. predation.

2. Compare methods of food capture by predators.

3. Hypothesize on why some animals are adapted for feeding exclusively on fluid.

1. Contrast feeding and digestion as it occurs in sponges with the pattern found in virtually all other animals.

2. Contrast incomplete and complete digestive tracts.

3. Describe the digestive processes occurring in chewing, herbivorous insects.

1. Explain how the structure and function of tongues, teeth, and salivary glands reflect feeding habits of vertebrates.

2. Explain the functions of the component parts of the vertebrate digestive tract.

3. Hypothesize why the ruminant lifestyle evolved.

1. Categorize the key processes that are involved in digesting and absorbing nutrients in mammals.

2. Describe the roles of the accessory organs (glands) of digestion in a mammal.

1. Describe why an animal’s physiological functions are linked to its body temperature.

2. Define how animals can be classified with respect to temperature regulation.

3. Describe several different mechanisms for temperature homeostasis in animals.

1. Explain the importance of an animal’s maintenance of osmotic balance.

2. Describe how animals are classified based on their method of osmoregulation.

1. Describe the osmoregulatory and excretory structures that are found in major invertebrate taxa.

1. Explain the three key physiological functions vertebrates use to achieve osmoregulation.

2. Compare and contrast osmoregulation by freshwater fishes and osmoregulation by marine fishes.

3. Compare the functions of antennal glands and vertebrate kidneys.

1. Hypothesize why those organisms that reproduce asexually evolve very slowly.

2. Explain one advantage and one disadvantage to asexual reproduction.

1. Describe several forms of sexual reproduction in invertebrates.

2. Explain one advantage of sexual reproduction in invertebrates.

1. Contrast the strategies used by vertebrates to promote successful fertilization of eggs and early development of embryos.

2. Compare reproductive habits of fishes and amphibians.

3. Hypothesize on the selective pressures that promoted the evolution of, and the evolutionary conservation of, internal fertilization and the amniotic egg in the amniote lineage.

1. Describe semen and how it is released during mating.

2. Explain how hormones regulate human male reproductive function.

1. Describe the sequence of events in the production of an oocyte.

2. Explain how hormones regulate female reproductive functions.

1. Describe the major developmental events that occur during each of the three trimesters of a human pregnancy.

2. Explain the role of the placenta.