Over 3000 years of dynasties; historians group this into three major periods—Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom; 1600s BCE Middle Kingdom weakened

II.B.3

Depth 2

Pharaoh Hyksos established a new dynasty, beginning Egypt’s New Kingdom

II.B.4

Depth 2

Hatshepsut, woman pharaoh, ruled Egypt from 1479 to 1458 BCE

II.B.5

Depth 2

Tutankhamun (1300s BCE) ruled for ten years; his tomb discovered in 1922

II.B.6

Depth 2

Ramses II and the Golden Age; Ramses held power between 1279–1213 BCE

II.B.7

Depth 2

Ramses II built new capital city, temples, statues

II.B.8

Depth 2

Ramses II, an expansionist ruler; conflict with Hittites

II.B.9

Depth 2

Egyptians believed pharaohs chosen by the gods; pharaohs had a duty to uphold order, peace, and justice, a concept known as ma’at

II.C.1

Depth 2

Ma’at was the concept of harmony and the name of the goddess who oversaw this concept

II.C.2

Depth 2

Belief in judgment after death; dead person’s heart weighed on scale against Ma’at’s feather of truth; a harmonious life earned a good afterlife

II.C.3

Depth 2

Belief that gods and goddesses were active in the human world; gods sometimes depicted with human bodies and animal heads

II.C.4

Depth 2

Osiris and Set

II.C.5

Depth 2

Belief that a person’s soul could not pass to the afterlife without its body; bodies preserved by mummification

II.C.6

Depth 2

Societal social structure developed with a powerful ruling class; priests were part of powerful ruling class; the enslaved were bottom of social structure

II.C.7

Depth 2

Role of women in Egyptian society

II.C.8

Depth 2

Priests maintained temples to the gods and performed mummification; gained understanding of human anatomy; not all Egyptians mummified

II.C.9

Depth 2

Royal and upper-class Egyptians built monuments and tombs to preserve their remains and their riches

II.D.1

Depth 2

Imhotep the architect; the pyramid structure

II.D.2

Depth 2

The Great Pyramid and the Great Sphinx

II.D.3

Depth 2

Pictorial writing system—hieroglyphics; over time developed into three broad types

II.D.4

Depth 2

Egyptians wrote on stone, clay, and papyrus

II.D.5

Depth 2

Rosetta Stone

II.E.1

Depth 2

Egyptian decline; invasions

II.E.2

Depth 2

During time of Hyksos, Kush expanded northwards

II.E.3

Depth 2

Around 745 BCE Kush invaded and defeated Egypt

II.E.4

Depth 2

Kushite King Piye became a pharaoh

II.E.5

Depth 2

Kushites, under pressure from Assyrians, retreat to the south; established new capital, Meroë, which became a center for iron production

II.E.6

Depth 2

Kushites established thriving trade network

II.E.7

Depth 2

In 350 BCE Axum invaded and conquered Kush

III.A.1

Depth 2

The Israelites lived in a historic region sometimes called the Levant; area corresponds to modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria; today is called Near East or Middle East

III.B.1

Depth 2

Originally a nomadic people, the Israelites settled in area called Canaan

III.B.2

Depth 2

Over time, the city of Jerusalem became center of Jewish culture

III.B.3

Depth 2

Monotheism

III.B.4

Depth 2

Early collection of Jewish holy writings in work known as Tanakh or Hebrew Bible

III.B.5

Depth 2

Abraham and his descendants; covenant

III.B.6

Depth 2

Roots of three religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

III.B.7

Depth 2

Israelites in Egypt

III.B.8

Depth 2

Moses, Exodus, Ten Commandments

III.B.9

Depth 2

Promised land of Canaan

III.B.10

Depth 2

Joshua and Jericho

III.B.11

Depth 2

Tribes of Israel

III.B.12

Depth 2

House of David

III.B.13

Depth 2

Solomon and the First Temple

III.B.14

Depth 2

Development of monotheistic society based on God’s laws

III.B.15

Depth 2

Phoenicians came into area by 3000 BCE; lived along eastern Mediterranean, in coastal areas of present-day Syria, Lebanon, and northern Israel

III.B.16

Depth 2

Phoenician sailors, navigators, and trade

III.B.17

Depth 2

Phoenicians developed an alphabet

III.B.18

Depth 2

Philistines settle in region around 1200 BCE

III.B.19

Depth 2

Assyrians

III.B.20

Depth 2

Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem

III.B.21

Depth 2

Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem and the temple

III.B.22

Depth 2

Babylonian captivity

III.B.23

Depth 2

Babylon conquered by Persian Empire

III.B.24

Depth 2

Persian king Cyrus II allows Jews of Babylon to return to Judah

III.B.25

Depth 2

Diaspora and the Second Temple

III.B.26

Depth 2

Queen Esther

III.B.27

Depth 2

Persians defeated by Alexander the Great

III.B.28

Depth 2

Greek culture spreads throughout eastern Mediterranean

III.B.29

Depth 2

164 BCE Jewish leader Judas Maccabeus leads revolt

III.B.30

Depth 2

Judas and followers known as Maccabees take power in Judah

III.B.31

Depth 2

Hanukkah and the menorah

III.B.32

Depth 2

Roman Rule in Judaea

III.B.33

Depth 2

Dead Sea Scrolls

IV.A.1

Depth 2

Mainland of Greece is a peninsula surrounded by water on three sides; beyond mainland much of Greece is an archipelago; Crete is largest island

IV.A.2

Depth 2

Mainland has two major zones—central and northern zone is mountainous; southwest is the Peloponnese, a peninsula connected to rest of mainland by a narrow strip of land, or isthmus

IV.A.3

Depth 2

Eighty percent of land taken up by mountains

IV.A.4

Depth 2

Mediterranean and Aegean Seas

IV.B.1

Depth 2

First civilizations in region were not Greek

IV.B.2

Depth 2

Minoans flourished on island of Crete between 2700 and 1500 BCE

IV.B.3

Depth 2

Minoan palace at Knossos on Crete; frescoes

IV.B.4

Depth 2

King Minos

IV.B.5

Depth 2

Mycenaean Civilization, named for city of Mycenae; dominant culture in the Peloponnese and several islands between 1700 and 1100 BCE

IV.B.6

Depth 2

Mycenaean settlements included Sparta, Thebes, Argos, Athens, and Tiryns

IV.B.7

Depth 2

Mycenaean civilization influenced Greek civilization

IV.B.8

Depth 2

Around 750 BCE, inhabitants of Greece known as Hellenes; ancient Greek culture came to be called Hellenic

IV.B.9

Depth 2

Greeks established small kingdoms; traded with Egyptians and Phoenicians

IV.B.10

Depth 2

Adapted Phoenician alphabet to create a Greek alphabet

IV.C.1

Depth 2

Greeks practiced polytheism, belief in many gods

IV.C.2

Depth 2

Mount Olympus, home of most powerful and influential gods; court of Zeus, king of the gods

IV.C.3

Depth 2

Olympic Games, held at Olympia in honor of Zeus

IV.C.4

Depth 2

Establishment of city-states including Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Syracuse, and Rhodes; polis

IV.C.5

Depth 2

Tyrants and Oligarchs

IV.C.6

Depth 2

Concept of citizenship and citizens

IV.C.7

Depth 2

Solon’s reforms and the development of Athenian democracy

IV.C.8

Depth 2

Athenian culture; education, debate, philosophy, literature, and music; symposia

IV.C.9

Depth 2

The Assembly

IV.C.10

Depth 2

Cleisthenes increased power of Assembly; enabled men over eighteen who owned property to participate in government

IV.C.11

Depth 2

Sparta’s military might; all men served in military

IV.C.12

Depth 2

Sparta led by two kings who ruled together

IV.C.13

Depth 2

Rivalry between Athens and Sparta

IV.C.14

Depth 2

Persian wars; Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis

IV.C.15

Depth 2

Herodotus, early historian

IV.C.16

Depth 2

Golden Age of Athens; Delian League

IV.C.17

Depth 2

Pericles, a strong military commander; oversaw construction of Parthenon

IV.C.18

Depth 2

The Peloponnesian War: Sparta defeats Athens in 405 BCE

IV.C.19

Depth 2

Greek Literature and Drama; Greek tragedies; the Iliad and the Odyssey; Aesop’s fables; Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides

IV.C.20

Depth 2

Philosophers of Athens; Socrates and Socratic method; Plato and Plato’s Republic; Plato’s Academy; Aristotle

IV.C.21

Depth 2

Alexander the Great and the spread of Greek (“Hellenistic”) culture

V.A.1

Depth 2

India lies on a peninsula called a subcontinent; relative separation from rest of Asia; part of separation created by Himalayas which stretch across northern part of region— highest mountains in world; Hindu Kush mountain range to the west; subcontinent also includes Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan

V.A.2

Depth 2

Indus River and Ganges River

V.A.3

Depth 2

Mountains and plateau

V.B.1

Depth 2

Indus civilization arose in northwest part of subcontinent around 2600 BCE

V.B.2

Depth 2

Covered much of area now known as Pakistan

V.B.3

Depth 2

Farming and livestock; crops included rice, grains, dates, lentils, and sesame; fruit trees

V.B.4

Depth 2

Farming methods, including crop rotation and irrigation; plow

V.B.5

Depth 2

Numerous organized settlements, including Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

V.B.6

Depth 2

Cities designed on a grid system; courtyards; granaries, public baths, drains, and sewers

V.B.7

Depth 2

Trade with other parts of the subcontinent

V.B.8

Depth 2

Developed standardized weight system, written language called Indus or Harappan

V.B.9

Depth 2

Many modern languages grew out of the Indo-European language group, including Hindi

V.B.10

Depth 2

Vedic Period; small kingdoms; farming; agriculture around Ganges River Valley

V.B.11

Depth 2

Sanskrit

V.C.1

Depth 2

Vedas, some of the oldest religious texts in the world; texts are considered to reflect divine truth and sacred knowledge; first transmitted orally, later written down; the four Vedas are called Rig Veda, Yagur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda; Rig Veda is the oldest

V.C.2

Depth 2

Varnas and Jatis

V.C.3

Depth 2

Hinduism Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; avatars

V.C.4

Depth 2

Epic poems—Ramayana and Mahabharata

V.C.5

Depth 2

Reincarnation; karma

V.C.6

Depth 2

Buddhism and Prince Siddhartha Gautama; Buddha, “enlightened one

V.C.7

Depth 2

Nirvana

V.C.8

Depth 2

Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

V.C.9

Depth 2

Jainism

V.D.1

Depth 2

The Mauryan Empire and Chandragupta Maurya

V.D.2

Depth 2

King Ashoka (also spelled Asoka)

V.D.3

Depth 2

Gupta Empire

VI.A.1

Depth 2

China’s eastern border at the edge of the Pacific Ocean; to the north lies the Gobi Desert; to the southwest, China’s border with India is formed by the Himalayas; geographical factors provide China with formidable physical borders

VI.A.2

Depth 2

Huang He (Yellow River) and Yangzi (Yangtze, Chang Jiang) River

VI.A.3

Depth 2

Early civilization arose in valley around the Huang He

VI.A.4

Depth 2

Farming methods; grains, rice, soybeans, tea, mulberry trees

VI.B.1

Depth 2

Developed one or world’s oldest writing system; at first, symbols represented objects

VI.B.2

Depth 2

Early Chinese civilization shaped by several dynasties with sophisticated political states

VI.B.3

Depth 2

Xia dynasty; Yu the Great

VI.B.4

Depth 2

Shang dynasty rose to power around 1766 BCE; King Tang

VI.B.5

Depth 2

Daoism

VI.B.6

Depth 2

Zhou dynasty 1046 BCE; promoted idea of divine right; first Zhou king, Wen; feudal system

VI.B.7

Depth 2

Spring and Autumn Period 770 BCE; semi-independent states

VI.B.8

Depth 2

Confucianism, influential product of Spring and Autumn period; named for Chinese philosopher Kong Qiu; Golden Rule; five basic relationships; filial piety

VI.B.9

Depth 2

Warring states period lasted from 481 to 221 BCE; first known military manual written at this time, known as The Art of War

VI.B.10

Depth 2

Qin Empire; Yeng Zheng, took title Shihuangdi, meaning first emperor; tried to unify China; Lingqu Canal; begins construction of Great Wall; Terracotta Warriors

VI.B.11

Depth 2

Han dynasty ruled for more than four hundred years, from 202 BCE to 220 CE; Xiang Yu; Emperor Wu; trade in silk and spices, the Silk Road, invention of paper

VI.B.12

Depth 2

Increased trade, and contact with foreigners, enabled spread of Buddhism into China

VII.A.1

Depth 2

Region where city of Rome established called Latium

VII.A.2

Depth 2

Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea, Adriatic Sea

VII.A.3

Depth 2

Apennine Mountains, Alps

VII.A.4

Depth 2

Greece, Italy (peninsula), France, Spain

VII.A.5

Depth 2

North Africa, Asia Minor (peninsula), Turkey

VII.A.6

Depth 2

Bosporus (strait), Black Sea, Istanbul (Constantinople)

VII.A.7

Depth 2

Red Sea, Tiber River, Persian Gulf

VII.B.1

Depth 2

Etruscans

VII.B.2

Depth 2

Greek ruler Pyrrhus defeated by Romans in Southern Italy

VII.B.3

Depth 2

The Republic: Senate, Consuls, Patricians, Plebeians

VII.B.4

Depth 2

Plebeian Council

VII.B.5

Depth 2

Punic Wars: Carthage, Hannibal, Battle of Cannae, 216 BCE

VII.B.6

Depth 2

Scipio

VII.C.1

Depth 2

The Forum: temples, marketplaces, etc.

VII.C.2

Depth 2

The Colosseum: circuses, gladiator combat, chariot races

VII.C.3

Depth 2

Theater and Poetry

VII.C.4

Depth 2

Roads, bridges, sewer system, public toilets, public baths and aqueducts

VII.C.5

Depth 2

Worship of gods and goddesses, largely based on Greek religion

VII.C.6

Depth 2

Most Romans spoke a version of Latin; Greek spoken also

VII.C.7

Depth 2

Greek philosophy, especially Stoicism and Epicureanism, influential in the Republic

VII.C.8

Depth 2

Cicero, Seneca, Pliny the Elder

VII.D.1

Depth 2

Conflicting interests of optimates and populares

VII.D.2

Depth 2

Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), Marcus Licinius Crassus held power as the First Triumvirate

VII.D.3

Depth 2

Caesar elected Consul, given command of Roman armies, aligned with populares

VII.D.4

Depth 2

Caesar crosses Rubicon, declares war on Pompey

VII.E.1

Depth 2

The rise of the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire

VII.E.2

Depth 2

Trading Center

VII.E.3

Depth 2

Constantinople (now called Istanbul) merges diverse influences and cultures.

VII.E.4

Depth 2

Justinian (527 to 565 CE), Justinian’s Code

VII.E.5

Depth 2

Outbreak of plague, depleting population

VII.E.6

Depth 2

Rise of Islamic Rulerss

VIII.A.1

Depth 2

Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world; it is surrounded by the Red Sea; it is part of the continent of Asia

VIII.A.2

Depth 2

Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Mediterranean Sea

VIII.A.3

Depth 2

Plateau, Sandy Deserts, Dry Plains, Oases

VIII.B.1

Depth 2

Part of trade network linking ancient civilizations including Egypt, Kush, Mesopotamia, Persia, China, India, Greece, Rome

VIII.B.2

Depth 2

Trees produced resins, frankincense and myrrh; Silk Road; Gold, Ivory, Silks, Spices

VIII.B.3

Depth 2

Introduction of camels

VIII.B.4

Depth 2

Growth of trading centers Mecca and Medina

VIII.B.5

Depth 2

Nomadic herdsmen

VIII.B.6

Depth 2

The Nabataeans ruled for a time; built Petra; managed water with cisterns

VIII.C.1

Depth 2

Much of the story of Muhammad, and early Islamic customs and practices come from the Hadith and the Sunna

VIII.C.2

Depth 2

The Quran is Islam’s most holy book.

VIII.C.3

Depth 2

Muhammad: the last prophet, thought to have been born in Mecca, in present day Saudi Arabia around 570 CE; family part of Quraish tribe

VIII.C.4

Depth 2

Orphaned and raised by relatives; traveled with uncle’s trading caravan

VIII.C.5

Depth 2

Married Khadija; became a merchant

VIII.C.6

Depth 2

Sought spiritual understanding at age forty; went to a cave

VIII.C.7

Depth 2

Muhammad believed God and angel Gabriel spoke to him through visions; instructed to spread Islam, a word meaning surrender or submission to God

VIII.C.8

Depth 2

Muhammad shares revelations; meets opposition, especially in Mecca

VIII.C.9

Depth 2

Muhammad and followers go to Medina (the Hijarah)

VIII.C.10

Depth 2

Muhammad receives more revelations in Medina; begins new Islamic society

VIII.C.11

Depth 2

Many Jewish residents leave Medina

VIII.C.12

Depth 2

Muhammad organizes fighting force; takes over Mecca; rejects pagan gods; Mecca becomes important site of Islamic worship

VIII.D.1

Depth 2

Main tenets of Islam called the five pillars: Profession of Faith; Prayer; Alms: Fasting; Pilgrimage

VIII.D.2

Depth 2

After Muhammad’s death around 632 CE, the first caliph was Abu Bakr; the second caliph was Umar; the third caliph was Osman

VIII.D.3

Depth 2

Umar and Osman expand territory under Islamic control

VIII.D.4

Depth 2

Osman creates administrative divisions of Islamic state; overseas official version of Quran

VIII.D.5

Depth 2

Osman killed; Muhammad’s cousin Ali becomes caliph

VIII.D.6

Depth 2

Civil War breaks out with two opposing factions; Muslims become divided into two main groups—Shia, who followed Ali’ Sunni who rejected Ali

VIII.D.7

Depth 2

Islam expands into Africa, Asia, and Southern Spain

VIII.E.1

Depth 2

Spread of Arabic culture, including language, art and architecture

VIII.E.2

Depth 2

Cities throughout Islamic Empire become centers of learning, including Damascus and Baghdad

VIII.E.3

Depth 2

Conflict with external enemies; clashes with Christian leaders in Europe; the Crusades

VIII.E.4

Depth 2

Islamic Golden Age; trade; banking; universities; scholars; mathematics, including algebra and calculus; medical knowledge

VIII.E.5

Depth 2

Avicenna (Ibn Sina); Five-volume medical encyclopedia—The Canon of Medicine; The Book of Healing

VIII.E.6

Depth 2

Baghdad site of House of Wisdom

VIII.E.7

Depth 2

Works of literature such as The Thousand and One Nights

VIII.E.8

Depth 2

Emergence of Ottoman Empire

IX.A.1

Depth 2

Mesoamerica—a historical region stretching from northwest of modern Mexico southward into isthmus connecting North and South America

IX.A.2

Depth 2

Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean

IX.A.3

Depth 2

Yucatán Peninsula

IX.A.4

Depth 2

Amazon River; river basin

IX.A.5

Depth 2

Andes Mountains

IX.A.6

Depth 2

Altiplano

IX.A.7

Depth 2

Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana

IX.A.8

Depth 2

Rainforest

IX.A.9

Depth 2

Atacama Desert

IX.B.1

Depth 2

Olmec civilization arose around 1200 BCE along Mexico’s Gulf Coast; name Olmec comes from Aztec language, Nahuatl

IX.B.2

Depth 2

Olmecs extracted latex from rubber trees

IX.B.3

Depth 2

Inhabited large settlements such as the now called San Lorenzo

IX.B.4

Depth 2

Trade goods such as obsidian, jade, rubber, skins, pottery found at San Lorenzo, Las Limas, island of La Venta

IX.B.5

Depth 2

Constructed pyramids; large, carved stone heads; Olmec cave art

IX.B.6

Depth 2

Zapotec civilization centered in Valley of Oaxaca dates back to 1600 BCE

IX.B.7

Depth 2

City of Monte Albán founded in 500 BCE

IX.B.8

Depth 2

Use of water diversion and irrigation

IX.B.9

Depth 2

Declined due to outside invasion

IX.C.1

Depth 2

Large, prosperous realm of linked cities prior to Europeans

IX.C.2

Depth 2

Sophisticated architecture; advances in astronomy, mathematics

IX.C.3

Depth 2

Writing system; Classic Period writing system contains more than eight hundred symbols

IX.C.4

Depth 2

Cities contained palaces, temples, public spaces

IX.C.5

Depth 2

Main cities in late Classical Period include Chichén Itzá, on Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula; Palenque and Calakmul, in Mexico; Caracol, in Belize; Copán, in Honduras; and several large centers in Guatemala, including Tikal

IX.C.6

Depth 2

Construction of pyramids

IX.C.7

Depth 2

Religious beliefs—three distinct but linked realms—sky, earth, underworld

IX.C.8

Depth 2

Popol Vuh collection of Maya religious stories

IX.C.9

Depth 2

Human sacrifice

IX.C.10

Depth 2

Maya planned rituals on a regular schedule, using a calendar called the Tzolkin (the count of days)

IX.C.11

Depth 2

Used astronomical observation to plan buildings

IX.C.12

Depth 2

Decline began around 800 CE; unclear as to why

IX.D.1

Depth 2

After Maya Classic Period ended around 900 CE, Mesoamerica underwent transitions as new population centers arose

IX.D.2

Depth 2

After several centuries, a new civilization arose in Central Mexico

IX.D.3

Depth 2

From around 1300 CE, the Aztec rose in power through military successes; united most of northern region of Mesoamerica into an empire containing millions of people

IX.D.4

Depth 2

The Aztec built an empire centered in capital city of Tenochtitlán, where Mexico City stands today; Templo Mayor

IX.D.5

Depth 2

Lake Texcoco site of Tenochtitlán

IX.D.6

Depth 2

The Aztec believed in Pantheon of gods

IX.D.7

Depth 2

Like the Maya, the Aztec had a calendar system

IX.D.8

Depth 2

Aztec army contained skilled soldiers

IX.D.9

Depth 2

Sophisticated taxation system

IX.D.10

Depth 2

Human sacrifice

IX.D.11

Depth 2

Montezuma came to power in 1502 CE; expanded Aztec empire

IX.D.12

Depth 2

Spanish arrive in 1519 CE led by Hernán Cortés

IX.D.13

Depth 2

Montezuma taken hostage; submits to Cortés; Montezuma killed

IX.D.14

Depth 2

Spanish conquer Tenochtitlán

IX.D.15

Depth 2

Spread of European diseases causes decline in Aztec population

IX.E.1

Depth 2

The Inca—one of several groups who lived in the Andes region

IX.E.2

Depth 2

In late 1300s CE, they began to conquer neighbors.

IX.E.3

Depth 2

Between 1400 and 1533 CE they established largest empire in the Americas.

IX.E.4

Depth 2

Heart of Inca Empire was city of Cuzco, in modern Peru.

IX.E.5

Depth 2

Inca rulers used labor of those conquered to build infrastructure—roads and bridges that connected the empire

IX.E.6

Depth 2

Highly skilled stoneworkers

IX.E.7

Depth 2

Macchu Picchu

IX.E.8

Depth 2

Social structure; empire divided into four parts with four governors

IX.E.9

Depth 2

Tax system

IX.E.10

Depth 2

Use of a quipu used for communicating information

IX.E.11

Depth 2

Distinctive art style; geometric shapes

IX.E.12

Depth 2

Ruler Atahualpa held hostage and then killed.

IX.E.13

Depth 2

Spanish invaders led by Francisco Pizarro killed thousands of Inca.

IX.E.14

Depth 2

Conquered Cuzco in 1533

IX.E.15

Depth 2

European diseases weakened the Inca.

IX.E.16

Depth 2

Last Inca ruler captured and killed by Spanish in 1572; Inca realm absorbed by Spanish crown

X.1

Depth 2

North and south finally united by northern general, Yang Jian, who became Emperor Wendi

X.2

Depth 2

Rise of Sui dynasty in 581 CE

X.3

Depth 2

China united and ruled once again from old capital, Chang’an

X.4

Depth 2

Emperor Wendi establishes new administrative bureaucracy; exam based placement in civil service

X.5

Depth 2

Sui dynasty falls due to failed military campaigns and financial excess

X.6

Depth 2

Emperor Wendi’s son, Emperor Yangdi, killed by government official in 618 CE

X.7

Depth 2

Chang’an captured by general Li Yuan; Li Yuan becomes known as Gaozu; first emperor of new Tang dynasty

X.8

Depth 2

Gazozu creates new legal code.

X.9

Depth 2

The Tang rule from 618 to 907 CE.

X.10

Depth 2

Empress Wu Zhao a Tang ruler; only woman to have ruled China

X.11

Depth 2

Golden age in China, particularly during reign of Emperor Xuanzong; cultural achievements; woodblock printing; poets Li Bai and Du Fu

X.12

Depth 2

Tea merchants gain great wealth.

X.13

Depth 2

World’s first paper money and gunpowder

X.14

Depth 2

Period after the Tang is called the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

X.15

Depth 2

Zhao Kuangyin establishes Song dynasty; becomes Emperor Taizu

X.16

Depth 2

Increasing use of machinery and advances in agriculture

X.17

Depth 2

New technologies such as magnetic compass, sternpost ship rudders, and movabletype printing press

X.A.1

Depth 2

Temüjin was born in the 1160s to nomads who lived on the steppe north of China, in the region now called Mongolia; better known as Genghis Khan; elected as ruler of all Mongolia

X.A.2

Depth 2

Genghis Khan creates a law code; has Mongol language written down

X.A.3

Depth 2

Mongols traveled, hunted, and fought on horseback.

X.A.4

Depth 2

Launched successful assaults on cities in northern China; attacked Korean peninsula, and lands in modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and Poland

X.A.5

Depth 2

Genghis Khan died in 1227; sons inherited parts of his empire; most powerful part inherited by grandson Kublai Khan

X.A.6

Depth 2

Between 1260 and 1271 CE, Kublai Khan’s forces conquered Song Empire in south China

X.A.7

Depth 2

Kublai Khan declares himself emperor of China; establishes capital at Beijing; adopts imperial name Shizu; his dynasty known as Yuan

X.A.8

Depth 2

Expansion of trade

X.A.9

Depth 2

Marco Polo (c.1254–1324) visits China; later wrote of his adventures Il milione (The million)

X.A.10

Depth 2

Yuan dynasty declines after death of Kublai Khan

X.A.11

Depth 2

New emperor, Hongwu, establishes Ming dynasty; distinctive style of pottery

X.A.12

Depth 2

Great Wall construction

X.A.13

Depth 2

Construct new palace complex in Beijing, known as Forbidden City

X.A.14

Depth 2

Zheng He’s fleet

X.A.15

Depth 2

Ming dynasty taken over by the Manchu; they establish China’s final dynasty as the Qing.

XI.A.1

Depth 2

East Asia and Southeast Asia includes China and lands to the north, south, and east; present-day Korea and Japan typically considered part of East Asia, as well as Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines

XI.A.2

Depth 2

East and Southeast Asia lie in and along the coast of Pacific Ocean.

XI.A.3

Depth 2

Peninsulas and archipelagos; western curve of Ring of Fire

XI.A.4

Depth 2

Tsunamis; typhoons

XI.A.5

Depth 2

Mount Fuji

XI.B.1

Depth 2

Many early settlements emerged on or near coastline

XI.B.2

Depth 2

Agriculture developed in river valleys and limited plains regions.

XI.B.3

Depth 2

2000 BCE, people began to live in more concentrated farming villages; dolmens

XI.B.4

Depth 2

700 BCE rice is grown as a staple; 300s BCE bronze metalwork given way to iron; jade and pottery

XI.B.5

Depth 2

700s to 400s BCE, some towns united into first complex state in the peninsula, Gojoseon

XI.B.6

Depth 2

108 BCE north of Korea conquered by Han dynasty of China; later, four rival states emerged (18 BCE to 660 CE); referred to as Three Kingdoms period

XI.B.7

Depth 2

Societal class system

XI.B.8

Depth 2

Korea unified by Silla kingdom in late 600s CE, aided by Chinese Tang dynasty; called Unified Silla kingdom

XI.B.9

Depth 2

Unified Silla monarchs came from Kim clan; organized kingdom into nine provinces run by governors appointed by the king

XI.B.10

Depth 2

Unified Silla kingdom declines in 900s CE; replaced by Goryeo (or Koryo) dynasty

XI.C.1

Depth 2

Yayoi began in 300 BCE

XI.C.2

Depth 2

Increased rice and vegetable production due to introduction of irrigation

XI.C.3

Depth 2

Yayoi divided among clans

XI.C.4

Depth 2

Kofun period lasted from 250 to 538 CE; burial mounds; introduction of Shinto beliefs; kami

XI.C.5

Depth 2

Yamato clan establishes power in regions around present-day Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka

XI.D.1

Depth 2

Emperor Kimmei, 539 to 571 CE; beginning of Asuka period

XI.D.2

Depth 2

Japanese emperors believed to be direct descendants of sun goddess, Amaterasu

XI.D.3

Depth 2

Prince Shotoku ruled as regent when Empress Suiko was on throne

XI.D.4

Depth 2

Well organized bureaucratic government cap system

XI.D.5

Depth 2

Emperors ruled from city of Nara from 710 to 794 CE

XI.D.6

Depth 2

Emperor Shomu (724 to 749 CE), established Buddhist temple in every province in Japan

XI.D.7

Depth 2

Heian period established major central rule at city now called Kyoto

XI.D.8

Depth 2

Heian nobility and cultural achievements including establishment of Japanese writing system; The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu

XI.D.9

Depth 2

Regional landlords raise private armies of warriors, called samurai

XI.D.10

Depth 2

Samurai bound to serve regional lords, called daimyo

XI.D.11

Depth 2

Genpei War (1180 to 1185 CE); clash between rival daimyo

XI.D.12

Depth 2

Minamoto Yoritomo declares himself shogun; Kamakura period, improvements to infrastructure

XI.D.13

Depth 2

Samurai develop code of ethics and cultural practices known as bushido.

XI.D.14

Depth 2

Tea ceremony and ink-brush calligraphy developed in this period

XI.D.15

Depth 2

Mongols and dynastic changes

XI.D.16

Depth 2

Japan entered warring states period between 1467 to 1615 CE; ongoing civil war

XI.D.17

Depth 2

Portuguese trade; firearms; Christianity

XI.D.18

Depth 2

Tokugawa clan take power in early 1600s; ruled from Edo, present-day Tokyo

XI.D.19

Depth 2

Tokugawa shogunate closed off Japan to rest of world

XI.E.1

Depth 2

Modern country of Vietnam located on Indochinese peninsula

XI.E.2

Depth 2

Khmer ethnic group built an empire; Angkor Wat

XI.E.3

Depth 2

Khmer empire ended when capital Angkor captured by Thai people in 1432 CE

XI.E.4

Depth 2

1350 CE, Thai kingdom called Ayutthaya rose to power; capital Bangkok

XI.E.5

Depth 2

Ayutthaya kingdom ruled over large area of Southeast Asia for four centuries

XI.E.6

Depth 2

Malay people emerged in Malay peninsula, now modern country of Indonesia; eventually rule of Java and Sumatra

XII.A.1

Depth 2

Continent of Europe

XII.A.2

Depth 2

Russia

XII.A.3

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea

XII.A.4

Depth 2

Middle East; north Africa

XII.A.5

Depth 2

Eastern Europe

XII.A.6

Depth 2

Moscow

XII.A.7

Depth 2

Novgorod and Kyiv

XII.A.8

Depth 2

Dnieper River

XII.B.1

Depth 2

Also called the medieval period, the Middle Ages lasted from about 500 CE to 1500 CE

XII.B.2

Depth 2

The term Middle Ages designates an era of European history between the classical period of ancient Greece and Rome and the Renaissance

XII.B.3

Depth 2

Historians generally break the Middle Ages into three periods: the early Middle Ages (500 CE to 1000 CE), the High Middle Ages (1000 CE to 1300 CE), and the late Middle Ages (1300 CE to 1500 CE)

XII.B.4

Depth 2

Aristocracy originated from Roman nobles

XII.B.5

Depth 2

Aristocratic status was largely hereditary.

XII.B.6

Depth 2

Aristocracy held most of the land, and virtually all military and political power.

XII.C.1

Depth 2

Roman Empire had established many aspects of social structure which largely fell apart after fall of Rome

XII.C.2

Depth 2

Groups such as the Alemanni, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Vandals, Visigoths, and others began to migrate into the empire’s territory in the third century CE, establishing their own regional cultures.

XII.D.1

Depth 2

With the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the only European-wide system was the Christian Church.

XII.D.2

Depth 2

Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380 CE.

XII.D.3

Depth 2

Most important bishop within the hierarchy of the Church was the bishop of Rome (pope).

XII.E.1

Depth 2

In the eighth century CE, the kingdom of the Franks was one of the strongest in Europe; one of its kings rose to power—Charles the Great or Charlemagne.

XII.E.2

Depth 2

Under Charlemagne, monastic libraries grew.

XII.E.3

Depth 2

Growth of Charlemagne’s empire

XII.E.4

Depth 2

Parts of Charlemagne’s lands eventually became lands of Germany and France.

XII.F.1

Depth 2

New period of greater calm began in Europe in 1000 CE.

XII.F.2

Depth 2

Population increased, as did life expectancy.

XII.F.3

Depth 2

Growth of towns and economy

XII.F.4

Depth 2

High Middle Ages saw development of organized feudal system

XII.F.5

Depth 2

Feudalism evolved into complex hierarchy dominated by royals and nobles

XII.F.6

Depth 2

Europe was politically divided into kingdoms (ruled by a king) and principalities (ruled by a prince, duke, or count).

XII.F.7

Depth 2

Gatherings of political advisors evolved into parliaments.

XII.F.8

Depth 2

Bond of loyalty a defining feature of feudalism

XII.F.9

Depth 2

Distribution of land, and expansion of agricultural lands

XII.F.10

Depth 2

Development of a new plow, and changing farming methods; three-field rotation

XII.F.11

Depth 2

Military structure of the High Middle Ages dominated by mounted, armored knights and infantry

XII.F.12

Depth 2

Castle strongholds

XII.F.13

Depth 2

The English introduced longbows into warfare.

XII.F.14

Depth 2

Introduction of gunpowder

XII.F.15

Depth 2

By the end of the thirteenth century there were over a dozen universities in Europe.

XII.G.1

Depth 2

A manor was a rural, self-contained farming unit.

XII.G.2

Depth 2

Peasants worked on the manorial lands and were bound to the manorial lands by contract

XII.G.3

Depth 2

Peasants had little social power (serfs).

XII.H.1

Depth 2

Inhabited by trades people, artisans, craftspeople

XII.H.2

Depth 2

By 1100s, many towns had established guilds.

XII.H.3

Depth 2

Apprenticeship system

XII.H.4

Depth 2

Merchants and expanded trade links across Europe

XII.H.5

Depth 2

Silk road continued to be an important trade route for goods and ideas.

XII.I.1

Depth 2

The Church reached its greatest influence in the High Middle Ages.

XII.I.2

Depth 2

Nearly everyone’s life revolved around the Church.

XII.I.3

Depth 2

Clergy were the main source of education and held great social and political power.

XII.I.4

Depth 2

Church architecture began to change during this period; abbey church of Saint-Denis

XII.I.5

Depth 2

Mechanical clock developed for the Church in second half of thirteenth century

XII.J.1

Depth 2

In High Middle Ages Europeans had expanded interest in the Holy Land.

XII.J.2

Depth 2

Rise of Islam

XII.J.3

Depth 2

In 1096 CE, the pope called for a crusade to take back the Holy Land for Christianity.

XII.J.4

Depth 2

Christians captured Jerusalem in 1099 CE.

XII.J.5

Depth 2

Knights Templars were a Christian military order founded around 1118 CE.

XII.K.1

Depth 2

Europe’s population began to slow around 1300 CE.

XII.K.2

Depth 2

Crop failure, famine, and population decline

XII.K.3

Depth 2

Black Death, 1347 CE; drastic decline in population

XII.K.4

Depth 2

Social and Political upheaval

XII.K.5

Depth 2

Hundred Year’s War (1337–1453 CE); Peasant’s Revolt, 1381 CE

XII.K.6

Depth 2

System of feudalism began to decline.

XII.K.7

Depth 2

Johannes Gutenberg printing press 1440 CE

XII.L.1

Depth 2

Some of the patterns that defined medieval Europe were also part of medieval Russia, but there were ways in which Russia was quite different.

XII.L.2

Depth 2

While many peoples lived in the region in and around Russia, the Slavs and the Rus were two groups that became important.

XII.L.3

Depth 2

Byzantine missionaries brought Christianity to Russia around 900 CE.

XII.L.4

Depth 2

By the eleventh century Russia incorporated more long-distance trade than the West, and the cultural touchstones of art, literature, and architecture were more developed.

XII.L.5

Depth 2

Mongols defeated Rus in 1223 CE.

XII.L.6

Depth 2

Mongols created the largest contiguous empire the world has ever known.

XII.L.7

Depth 2

The Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus in 1223 CE left Russia with only a few small areas, such as Novgorod, remaining outside of Mongol control.

XII.L.8

Depth 2

The prince of Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky, maintained independence by negotiating with the Mongols. From this arose a new country, the Grand Principality of Moscow, or Muscovy.

XII.L.9

Depth 2

A strong ruler named Ivan became the grand prince of Muscovy in 1462 CE (Ivan the Great).

XII.L.10

Depth 2

Ivan the Great demonstrated military and political strength; developed strong central government; foundations of modern Russia

XIII.A.1

Depth 2

Continent of Africa

XIII.A.2

Depth 2

Great diversity of climate and geographical zones across the continent of Africa including grassy savannas

XIII.A.3

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea

XIII.A.4

Depth 2

Middle East

XIII.A.5

Depth 2

Sahara Desert; Kalahari Desert; Sahel

XIII.A.6

Depth 2

Sinai Peninsula

XIII.A.7

Depth 2

Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers

XIII.A.8

Depth 2

Atlas Mountains

XIII.A.9

Depth 2

Mount Kilimanjaro

XIII.A.10

Depth 2

Madagascar (fourth largest island on earth)

Depth 2

The vast continent of Africa has a great diversity of landscapes, resources, and cultures. Between the sixth and sixteenth centuries CE, several civilizations in North and West Africa served as important centers of trade and cultural exchange. The three great West African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai rose to power in part because they controlled gold mines, salt mines, and the trade routes that linked these valuable resources to the rest of the world.

XIII.C.1

Depth 2

Several African civilizations enjoyed incredible prosperity, growing trade, and crosscultural connections.

XIII.C.2

Depth 2

This growth was helped by greater contact between Africans and the empires that ruled the regions surrounding Africa.

XIII.C.3

Depth 2

Spread of Christianity and Islam

XIII.C.4

Depth 2

Trans-Saharan trade fueled the rise of three mighty empires in West Africa. The Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires emerged in succession between the 400s and the 1400s CE

XIII.C.5

Depth 2

West Africa was an important regional trade center that connected different parts of Africa as well as China, India, Arabia, and Europe

XIII.C.6

Depth 2

Each of the three empires benefited from the region’s deposits of gold and salt

XIII.D.1

Depth 2

Situated south of the Sahara in the relatively less arid region of the Sahel, the Ghana Empire began as a regional kingdom of the Soninke people, who were part of a larger ethnic and language group called the Mande.

XIII.D.2

Depth 2

Most of what is known about the Ghana Empire has been passed down through either oral tradition or texts written by Arab merchants.

XIII.D.3

Depth 2

It is likely that the main city was Koumbi Saleh (located in present-day Mauritania), which was home to thousands of people.

XIII.D.4

Depth 2

The people of the Ghana Empire originally practiced an animist religion, as was common throughout West Africa.

XIII.D.5

Depth 2

As Islamic civilization began to spread in the 700s CE, more and more Muslim merchants, diplomats, and others made their way to the Ghana Empire.

XIII.D.6

Depth 2

By the end of the twelfth century CE, the Ghana Empire was an Islamic society.

XIII.D.7

Depth 2

Conflict with various external groups weakened the empire, as did a change in climate and weather patterns.

XIII.E.1

Depth 2

Rise of West African kingdom of Mali began in 1235 CE when Mandinka leader called Sundiata Keita (Lion Prince or Hungering Prince) became the mansa, or emperor

XIII.E.2

Depth 2

Sundiata Keita fortified trade routes and took control of the gold mines.

XIII.E.3

Depth 2

City of Timbuktu became an important cosmopolitan center of the Mali Empire.

XIII.E.4

Depth 2

Mali Empire taxed the goods that came through Timbuktu and their other cities

XIII.E.5

Depth 2

Most powerful ruler of the Mali Empire was Mansa Musa, who reigned from 1312 to 1337 CE; doubled size of the empire; became one of the richest men in the world

XIII.E.6

Depth 2

Around 1324 CE, Mansa Musa undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca.

XIII.E.7

Depth 2

Mansa Musa supported the construction of mosques, Islamic schools, libraries, and universities.

XIII.E.8

Depth 2

A combination of factors led to the eventual decline of Mali’s power.

Depth 2

XIII.F.1

Depth 2

Songhai kings attacked and raided Mali cities.

XIII.F.2

Depth 2

One king, named Sunni Ali, used his strong army and naval force to control travel on the Niger.

XIII.F.3

Depth 2

By 1468, Sunni Ali had conquered most of the territory once held by the Mali Empire.

XIII.F.4

Depth 2

By 1500, the Songhai Empire stretched even farther to the north and east than Mali had.

XIII.F.5

Depth 2

Askia Muhammad, the first Songhai emperor, developed more trade with Asia and Europe.

XIII.F.6

Depth 2

Askia Muhammad sought to increase the influence of Islam in the empire; he supported the building of mosques and brought many Arab scholars to the university in Timbuktu, which created a golden age of learning in the region.

XIII.F.7

Depth 2

The Tomb of Askia, a grand structure that is part of the Great Mosque of Gao, is said to be his place of burial. It is the largest historical monument in West Africa.

XIII.F.8

Depth 2

In the late 1500s, internal strife, drought, and disease began to fray the Songhai Empire.

XIII.G.1

Depth 2

New influences entered West Africa as Portuguese and other European traders and explorers gained the ability to travel to the region in the 1400s.

XIII.G.2

Depth 2

The arrival of Europeans changed the form and scale of the African slave trade.

XIII.G.3

Depth 2

Portuguese explorers and traders began to set up trading posts on the African coast in the 1440s.

XIII.G.4

Depth 2

The Portuguese traded in goods that the local trading networks produced; included trade of enslaved people

XIII.H.1

Depth 2

A geographer and avid traveler, Ibn Battuta was a fourteenth-century Muslim scholar from Morocco; his travels in West Africa took place from 1349 to 1354 CE.

XIII.H.2

Depth 2

He wrote detailed accounts about his experiences and drew maps of his voyages.

XIII.H.3

Depth 2

Griots are important figures in West African cultures.

XIII.H.4

Depth 2

Griots serve as historians, genealogists, storytellers, poets, musicians, praise singers, and authority figures.

XIII.H.5

Depth 2

The role of griot was hereditary and a position of honor.

XIII.H.6

Depth 2

Griots told social and family histories that were passed down from one generation to the next through stories and songs.

XIII.H.7

Depth 2

Instruments such as the kora (similar to a harp) and the balafon (similar to a xylophone) accompanied the words and lyrics.

XIII.H.8

Depth 2

The tale of Sundiata Keita was preserved by griots for centuries.

XIII.H.9

Depth 2

Griots also functioned as record keepers for births, deaths, and marriages.

XIV.A.1

Depth 2

Europe

XIV.A.2

Depth 2

Africa

XIV.A.3

Depth 2

Asia

XIV.A.4

Depth 2

Arabia

XIV.A.5

Depth 2

Persia

XIV.A.6

Depth 2

Spain, Italy, England

XIV.A.7

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Arabian Sea, Adriatic Sea

Depth 2

The word Renaissance means rebirth. It is used to describe the years 1300 to 1600 CE in Italy and 1450 to 1650 CE in northern Europe. This era was a “rebirth” because it involved the rediscovery of things learned in centuries past, particularly in ancient Greece and Rome. The government of the Western Roman Empire fell apart in the fifth century CE. Its education system also collapsed. The new rulers of western Europe were warriors and warlords. After the fall of Rome, western Europe fell out of contact with the Greekspeaking Eastern Roman Empire. Greek was read and spoken less and less in the western part of the empire, and the knowledge of many subjects formerly taught in Greek faded. The Catholic Church was the main institution that survived the fall of Rome, and learning was preserved by Catholic monks in monasteries. By the twelfth century, the increasing wealth and power of European kingdoms had led to a new demand for learning.

XIV.B.1

Depth 2

Monks in western Europe had preserved Latin writing; Greek texts were copied, read, and studied widely in areas under Muslim rule.

XIV.B.2

Depth 2

Followers of Islam conquered most of the Eastern Roman Empire in the seventh and eighth centuries CE; they absorbed the Greek-speaking upper class of East Rome.

XIV.B.3

Depth 2

Muslims prized Greek texts for their contributions to medicine, philosophy, and science. Schools flourished for centuries in the Islamic Middle East, North Africa, and Iberia.

XIV.B.4

Depth 2

Muslim scholars translated the writings of Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, and more into Arabic.

XIV.B.5

Depth 2

Muslim scholars also wrote new works that advanced knowledge beyond that of the Greeks.

XIV.B.6

Depth 2

European scholars traveled to places such as Córdoba in search of Greek texts; also impressed and influenced by Muslim thinkers and their texts

XIV.B.7

Depth 2

European scholars brought texts from the Muslim world to European centers of learning (universities).

XIV.C.1

Depth 2

Europe’s economy had begun to grow quickly during the eleventh century. Italian cities, especially the port cities of Venice and Genoa, were among the first to display this new wealth, which came from trade.

XIV.C.2

Depth 2

Italy comprised of several kingdoms or states; each Italian city had its own government

XIV.C.3

Depth 2

Trade caused more Italian cities to grow. Florence began to produce high-quality woolen fabric, often using wool from English sheep; rise of merchant class

XIV.C.4

Depth 2

Venetians excelled in trade; dominated ports of eastern and southern Mediterranean Sea

XIV.C.5

Depth 2

Florence developed an international trade in woolen cloth.

XIV.C.6

Depth 2

Florentines and other Italian bankers developed international banking networks.

XIV.C.7

Depth 2

Guilds were organizations formed by skilled laborers called artisans. The guilds of Florence were wealthy and influential.

XIV.C.8

Depth 2

Rome remained capital of the Catholic Church administration; papacy was part of European politics

XIV.D.1

Depth 2

Italy was the home of a new movement in literature and learning that transformed European thought.

XIV.D.2

Depth 2

Humanists began reading, collecting, and translating ancient Greek texts. Works by Homer, Sophocles, Thucydides, and more became more available to readers across Europe.

XIV.D.3

Depth 2

Francis Petrarch (1304–74) was an important early humanist.

XIV.D.4

Depth 2

Humanist study of languages extended to Hebrew and, by the late fifteenth century, included new scholarship on the Bible.

XIV.E.1

Depth 2

The Renaissance is famous for its artistic developments, which were the product of wealth and growth in the Italian cities.

XIV.E.2

Depth 2

Humanists influenced the development of new architectural styles based on ancient buildings.

XIV.E.3

Depth 2

Painters of this era worked in shops and were members of guilds; learned by working as apprentices to a master painter

XIV.E.4

Depth 2

Introduction of perspective in art

XIV.F.1

Depth 2

Banking made Cosimo de’ Medici (1389–1464) the wealthiest and most powerful man in Florence.

XIV.F.2

Depth 2

Medici family dominated politics in Florence

XIV.F.3

Depth 2

Cosimo de’ Medici (1389–1464) a patron of the arts

XIV.F.4

Depth 2

Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449–1492) patron to Sandro Botticelli (1445–1510), Andrea del Verrocchio (1435–88), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475–1564), and Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

XIV.F.5

Depth 2

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper, Mona Lisa

XIV.F.6

Depth 2

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) carved the Pietà and marble statue of David

XIV.F.7

Depth 2

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) known for his work the The Prince

XIV.G.1

Depth 2

Johannes Gutenberg (d. 1468), a German goldsmith by trade, began to print with movable type during the 1440s.

XIV.G.2

Depth 2

The new printing process spread quickly to other cities; humanists welcomed the chance to print copies of ancient texts.

XIV.G.3

Depth 2

Printing made all types of writing available to more people and enabled writers to profit from book sales.

XIV.H.1

Depth 2

The most famous and influential religious reformer was Martin Luther (1483–1546); challenged the Roman Catholic Church

XIV.H.2

Depth 2

Luther composed a list of ninety-five disagreements with Church doctrine (ninety-five theses); attached to church door October, 1517

XIV.H.3

Depth 2

Luther condemned by Catholic Church as a heretic, someone who preaches heresy, in 1521

XIV.H.4

Depth 2

Luther translated the New Testament into German and wrote works that were printed and widely read.

XIV.H.5

Depth 2

Some of the princes who ruled areas of the Holy Roman Empire supported Luther’s reforms.

XIV.H.6

Depth 2

In the cities of northern Europe, other religious leaders preached reform and sought to change their regional church practices with the help of their local governments.

XIV.H.7

Depth 2

John Calvin (1509–64) was the most important of the next generation of reformers.

XIV.I.1

Depth 2

Era in which European religion was dominated by a single united church was over, allowing dozens of religious beliefs to emerge.

XIV.I.2

Depth 2

During and after the Reformation, periods of unrest and violence ensued.

XIV.I.3

Depth 2

Each Christian group often viewed others as heretical

XIV.I.4

Depth 2

In order to obtain a divorce, Catholic monarch Henry VIII of England, declared himself head of the Church of England; Protestantism arose in England.

XIV.I.5

Depth 2

As part of his reforms, Henry VIII dissolved England’s monasteries and seized Church land and wealth.

XIV.I.6

Depth 2

Astronomer and physicist, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), supported theories held by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543); confirming the Sun, not the Earth at the center of Solar System, conflicting with Roman theologians

XIV.I.7

Depth 2

Roman court condemned Galileo

XV.A.1

Depth 2

Europe

XV.A.2

Depth 2

Portugal

XV.A.3

Depth 2

Spain

XV.A.4

Depth 2

England

XV.A.5

Depth 2

France

XV.A.6

Depth 2

The Netherlands

XV.A.7

Depth 2

Africa

XV.A.8

Depth 2

Mozambique, Kenya, Somalia

XV.A.9

Depth 2

Asia

XV.A.10

Depth 2

India

XV.A.11

Depth 2

Indonesia

XV.A.12

Depth 2

Malaysia

XV.A.13

Depth 2

Tawain

XV.A.14

Depth 2

South America, Brazil

XV.A.15

Depth 2

North America

XV.A.16

Depth 2

Mexico

XV.A.17

Depth 2

Bolivia

XV.A.18

Depth 2

Isthmus of Panama

XV.A.19

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean

XV.A.20

Depth 2

Congo River

XV.A.21

Depth 2

Cape of Good Hope

XV.B.1

Depth 2

The age of exploration that began in the 1400s is also sometimes called the age of sail.

XV.B.2

Depth 2

New sailing ships (carrack, caravel) and advances in navigational technologies (compass) enabled explorers and traders to cross ever greater distances on the sea.

XV.B.3

Depth 2

The Portuguese were some of the most successful early European explorers; Henry the Navigator

XV.B.4

Depth 2

Portuguese in search of sea route to China; explored coasts of Africa

XV.B.5

Depth 2

Portuguese outposts or colonies in parts of Africa; enslavement of Africans

XV.B.6

Depth 2

Bartolomeu Dias, first European to find and pass the Cape of Good Hope, the southern tip of the African continent; his expedition establishes way east to India and Cathay (China) by navigating around Africa

XV.B.7

Depth 2

Vasco da Gama explored East Africa; arrived in Calicut, India, in 1498; Pedro Álvares Cabral follows, opens up trade in India for the Portuguese; aim to gain Portuguese control of all trade in the Indian Ocean

XV.B.8

Depth 2

Portuguese claim Brazil in South America.

XV.B.9

Depth 2

In search of Eastern sea route, Columbus sails west with three ships in 1492; Niña, the Santa Maria, and the Pinta

XV.B.10

Depth 2

Columbus landed on an island called Ayti—the root of the modern name Haiti; indigenous people—the Taino; Columbus assumes he is in or near India

XV.B.11

Depth 2

Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella declare sovereignty over lands and resources in the Americas.

XV.B.12

Depth 2

In 1494, Spanish and Portuguese representatives met at the city of Tordesillas in Spain to divide the ‘new world’ between themselves; the Treaty of Tordesillas declared that everything to the west of a line drawn at the Cape Verde Islands belonged to Spain and everything to the east belonged to Portugal; treaty later amended to make Portugal’s claim to Brazil official

XV.B.13

Depth 2

Spanish secure and extend control over further lands in the Americas; enslavement of indigenous peoples; European diseases devastate indigenous populations

XV.B.14

Depth 2

First stable settlement on the South American continent, Santa María de la Antigua, established in the Isthmus of Panama by Vasco Núñez de Balboa

XV.B.15

Depth 2

Hernán Cortés expedition to Mexico; brutal campaign, defeated the Aztec rulers, conquered capital of Tenochtitlán

XV.B.16

Depth 2

Inca Empire of the Andes invaded and conquered by the Pizarro brothers; Conquistadors

XV.B.17

Depth 2

Exploitation of natural resources (silver, gold) in the Americas

XV.B.18

Depth 2

Bartolomé de Las Casas denounces abuse of indigenous populations in the Americas by Spanish; King Charles V of Spain enacts the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians

XV.B.19

Depth 2

Portuguese explorer, Fernão de Magalhães, or Ferdinand Magellan, led the first expedition (1519–1521) that successfully circumnavigated the globe.

XV.B.20

Depth 2

England and France seek a “northwest passage” around the Americas through the Arctic Ocean.

XV.B.21

Depth 2

English king Henry VII funded expedition (1497) led by Giovanni Caboto, or John Cabot; landed in Newfoundland

XV.B.22

Depth 2

French funded (1524) Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sailed to the Americas (Cape Fear, now North Carolina); sailed north along the east coast of continental North America

XV.B.23

Depth 2

French established a colony in North America, Gallia Nova, or New France, in the region that is now Quebec.

XV.B.24

Depth 2

English established their first successful American colonies in lands they named Virginia.

XV.B.25

Depth 2

English merchants established East India Company; by 1612 the company secured its own rights to trade with India; enslavement of people in East Africa and Indonesia

XV.B.26

Depth 2

Expansion of Dutch naval power and Dutch East India Company in early 1600s; Dutch established base in Jakarta, Indonesia; expanded control to include modern Taiwan, Malaysia, and provinces in East India

XV.B.27

Depth 2

By 1645, the Dutch most powerful trading empire in Southeast Asia

XV.B.28

Depth 2

To secure trading routes, Dutch East India Company turned Cape of Good Hope, in present-day South Africa, into a Dutch colony.

XV.B.29

Depth 2

Overtime, Dutch in South Africa become known as Afrikaners (a South African of Dutch descent who speaks Afrikaans) or Boers (after the Dutch word for farmer)

XV.B.30

Depth 2

Dutch seek northwest passage; in 1609, the Dutch fund English explorer Henry Hudson to look for such a route; Hudson sails to North America; Hudson River in New York State; surveys modern states of New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Connecticut

XV.B.31

Depth 2

After conflict between the Netherlands and England, New Netherland taken over by the English; New Amsterdam, one of the largest and richest settlements of New Netherland, renamed New York

XV.C.1

Depth 2

Slave trading and transportation became a major transatlantic activity in the 1600s and 1700s.

XV.C.2

Depth 2

Region of West Africa where many enslaved people were traded became known as the Slave Coast.

XV.C.3

Depth 2

Demand for enslaved labor grew due to the rise of profitable plantation crops in the Americas; Europeans began to lead raids deeper into Africa to find and capture people who could be enslaved and sold.

XV.C.4

Depth 2

Over centuries, the slave trade was active; many millions of Africans were taken on what was called the Middle Passage from Africa to the Americas and the Caribbean.

XV.C.5

Depth 2

Transatlantic trade in people and goods referred to as triangular trade; consisted of three directions of movement:

Depth 2

Europeans took goods such as weapons, alcohol, and clothes to Africa; goods exchanged for enslaved people; enslaved people taken to colonies in the Americas; goods produced by enslaved labor on colonial plantations taken back to Europe

XVI.A.1

Depth 2

Europe

Depth 2

The 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s brought significant changes in the ways that Europeans thought of themselves and their place in the world. When historians look back at this period, they find an increased regard for the roles of science and human reason and growing efforts to use science and reason to address a wide variety of issues.

XVI.B.1

Depth 2

1500s and 1600s see dramatic changes in European politics as governments throughout Europe became more bureaucratic and more centralized

XVI.B.2

Depth 2

Europeans experiencing a breakdown of their traditional views of the universe.

XVI.B.3

Depth 2

Dutch astronomer Tycho Brahe and German astronomer Johannes Kepler further support Nicolaus Copernicus’s theories with more proof of this emerging sun-centered worldview.

XVI.B.4

Depth 2

In 1609, Galileo’s telescope powerful enough to see that the moon is not a perfect sphere or a luminous object; reveals Moon has shadows, indicating valleys and mountains, just like on Earth; Jupiter has its own moons, similar to Earth’s

XVI.B.5

Depth 2

Scientific Revolution did not just look upward to the stars, it also looked inward, at the human body.

XVI.B.6

Depth 2

William Harvey develops own theory of circulation of the blood

XVI.B.7

Depth 2

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier discovered the role of oxygen in the respiration (breathing) system.

XVI.B.8

Depth 2

Ambroise Paré improved the treatment of wounds.

XVI.B.9

Depth 2

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek created his own microscope, which he used to observe and describe bacteria.

XVI.B.10

Depth 2

Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau some of the influencers of the European Enlightenment (Bacon’s life preceded the Enlightenment by several decades, but his writings served as one of its primary intellectual sources).

XVI.B.11

Depth 2

Isaac Newton reformulated the scientific method; provides first coherent theory of the entire physical universe; matter infused with active forces; gravity produces all the motion in the universe

XVI.C.1

Depth 2

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement centered in Europe and its colonies during the 1700s.

XVI.C.2

Depth 2

Human institutions, including forms of government, came under increased scrutiny and analysis during the Enlightenment (Thomas Hobbes believed humans needed strong government; John Locke believed humans had right to create and direct governments; natural rights).

XVI.C.3

Depth 2

Human nature increasingly the focus of scientific-like inquiry

XVI.C.4

Depth 2

Emergence of the French philosophes, a group of thinkers and writers increasingly critical of the existing social, political, and cultural orders in France; the group included Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

XVI.C.5

Depth 2

Influence of the Enlightenment on form and structure of new government in the United States of America

XVII.A.1

Depth 2

Europe (France, Spain, England)

XVII.A.2

Depth 2

Caribbean (Haiti)

XVII.A.3

Depth 2

North America

XVII.A.4

Depth 2

Mexico

XVII.A.5

Depth 2

Central America

XVII.A.6

Depth 2

South America

Depth 2

The 1700s and 1800s launched a wave of change across Europe and the Americas. Some changes were political and social and included revolution. These political and social revolutions were accompanied by a revolution in technology and industry.

XVII.C.1

Depth 2

The ideals of the American Revolution gained traction in France.

XVII.C.2

Depth 2

The Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834), a member of the French royal court, pressed for the abolition, or end, of the slave trade, for toleration of different religious beliefs, and for France to become a constitutional monarchy.

XVII.C.3

Depth 2

Influence in France of Thomas Paine’s publications Common Sense and Rights of Man

XVII.C.4

Depth 2

Louis XVI (1754–93) the king of France during the French Revolution; Louis’s family, the House of Bourbon, had ruled France since 1589

XVII.C.5

Depth 2

Louis was the ruler of the old order—l’ancien regime in French; he was the last king of the old order.

XVII.C.6

Depth 2

The French population was divided into three “estates,” levels determined by status, wealth, and power; the majority of France’s population made up the third estate, but lacked power and representation.

XVII.C.7

Depth 2

France’s population roughly doubled in size from the 1300s, from about twelve million people after the Black Death to about twenty-six million people just before the Revolution.

XVII.C.8

Depth 2

Growing class of merchants, artisans, bankers, and others who lived in French towns and cities, known as the bourgeoisie; educated, wealthy, and attracted to the ideas of the Enlightenment

XVII.C.9

Depth 2

In need of revenue, Louis XVI and his government attempt to tax his subjects from the first and second estates (the ‘notables’) who had previously been exempt from taxation; the notables refuse

XVII.C.10

Depth 2

King Louis XVI agrees to call the EstatesGeneral in 1789; representatives of the three estates meet

XVII.C.11

Depth 2

Declaration of formation of a National Assembly

XVII.C.12

Depth 2

Members of the National Assembly force the king and the other two estates to recognize its authority.

XVII.C.13

Depth 2

Louis XVI plans to send his troops to dissolve the National Assembly; the people of Paris revolt.

XVII.C.14

Depth 2

On July 14, 1789, a crowd of angry Parisians capture a fortified prison in the city, called the Bastille.

XVII.C.15

Depth 2

Across France peasants rise up against economic hardships and their landlords.

XVII.C.16

Depth 2

National Assembly issues sweeping range of reforms; end of the old order; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

XVII.C.17

Depth 2

Marquis de Lafayette elected to lead a new armed force, the National Guard

XVII.C.18

Depth 2

Crowd, led by women, march to the Palace of Versailles on October 5, 1789; force the king and his family back to Paris

XVII.C.19

Depth 2

Louis XVI attempts to escape in June, 1791.

XVII.C.20

Depth 2

In 1792, Louis XVI put under arrest by the citizens of Paris; the National Assembly declares that France is a republic and no longer a monarchy

XVII.C.21

Depth 2

From 1792 to 1795, France governed by a new body, the National Convention

XVII.C.22

Depth 2

Louis XVI accused of treason; tried, and sentenced to death by the National Convention

XVII.C.23

Depth 2

Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, both executed by guillotine in 1793

XVII.C.24

Depth 2

Radical revolutionaries, including Robespierre (1758-94) embark on ambitious economic and social measures; heavy taxes on the rich; price controls; universal education

XVII.C.25

Depth 2

Coalition of British, Prussian, and Austrian forces repeatedly defeat French forces in European wars.

XVII.C.26

Depth 2

New body, the Committee of Public Safety, founded in 1793 to organize the war effort and to defeat internal opposition to the Revolution; people accused of opposing the revolution tried and executed; Reign of Terror

XVII.C.27

Depth 2

Creation of a vast army of more than a million soldiers committed to defending France and defeating its enemies; Napoleon Bonaparte

XVII.D.1

Depth 2

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) initially a strong supporter and defender of the Revolution; leads French armies to defeat attempt to reinstate a monarch

XVII.D.2

Depth 2

Napoleon given command of armies fighting the Austrians and their allies; in 1796 and 1797, he forces Austrians to surrender

XVII.D.3

Depth 2

In 1799, Napoleon seizes control of the government; assumes full control over France as a dictator; in 1804, Napoleon declared emperor of France

XVII.D.4

Depth 2

Between 1804 and 1814, Napoleon’s French Empire involved in wars against Britain, Prussia, Portugal, and Spain; failed military effort in Russia

XVII.D.5

Depth 2

On April 6, 1814, Napoleon gave up rule as emperor; enters into exile on the island of Elba

XVII.D.6

Depth 2

On March 1, 1815, Napoleon returns to France; takes control of the nation and its armies

XVII.D.7

Depth 2

A combined army of British and Prussian troops fight French troops at Waterloo, in Belgium, on June 18, 1815; Napoleon defeated and removed from power

XVII.E.1

Depth 2

In 1791, Haiti (western part of the island, Saint-Dominique) controlled by France

XVII.E.2

Depth 2

Previously colonized by Spain (Hispaniola); under the Spanish, thousands of enslaved Africans and indigenous people forced to work in gold mines

XVII.E.3

Depth 2

Saint-Domingue society based on classifying people by color and race

XVII.E.4

Depth 2

Enslaved people have no rights; people of mixed heritage called affranchise

XVII.E.5

Depth 2

In 1791, following the overthrow of the French king, the new French government extends citizenship rights to some affranchise; ruling classes of Saint-Domingue ignore this order; large number of enslaved people revolt

XVII.E.6

Depth 2

French government sends official to restore order.

XVII.E.7

Depth 2

In 1794, French government agree to abolish slavery; rebelling enslaved population want independence; revolution

XVII.E.8

Depth 2

Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743–1803) becomes leader of the revolutionaries; several victories over the French

XVII.E.9

Depth 2

By 1794, rebels supported by British and the Spanish on the eastern half of the island (which today is the Dominican Republic)

XVII.E.10

Depth 2

Toussaint makes a deal with the French; he becomes lieutenant-governor of SaintDomingue; slavery abolished in exchange for an end to the rebellion

XVII.E.11

Depth 2

Agreement with Saint-Domingue broken by Napoleon Bonaparte; he tries to restore total French control between 1801 and 1803

XVII.E.12

Depth 2

Toussaint imprisoned by the French; died in 1803

XVII.E.13

Depth 2

France eventually defeated; the nation of Haiti established in 1804

XVII.E.14

Depth 2

France demands that the former colony pay 150 million francs in exchange for its independence—roughly 21 billion dollars in modern currency

XVII.F.1

Depth 2

Beginning of the 1800s, independence movements sweep through the Spanish Empire in the Americas; events in Europe in the 1800s trigger revolutionary movements in the Americas

XVII.F.2

Depth 2

Between 1808 and 1826, Spain loses control of all its possessions except Cuba and Puerto Rico.

XVII.F.3

Depth 2

Brazil becomes independent of Portugal in 1822 with Dom Pedro (1798–1834) as its first emperor

XVII.F.4

Depth 2

Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), known as EL Libertador (the Liberator), and José de San Martín (1778–1850), successful leaders of the revolutions against Spanish rule

XVII.F.5

Depth 2

San Martín helped Argentina, Chile, and Peru achieve independence by 1821.

XVII.F.6

Depth 2

Between 1817 and 1819, Bolívar took control of the colony of New Granada, which was renamed Gran Colombia.

XVII.F.7

Depth 2

Bolívar dreamed of a large, independent state, but by 1830, Gran Colombia had fractured into smaller nations: Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama

XVII.G.1

Depth 2

Mexico was known as New Spain under Spanish rule.

XVII.G.2

Depth 2

The push for Mexican independence was driven by political developments in Spain.

XVII.G.3

Depth 2

New Mexican Empire became independent on August 24, 1821; lasts for two years

XVII.G.4

Depth 2

Mexican revolutionaries such as, Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794–1876), believe Mexico should become a republic.

XVII.G.5

Depth 2

Mexico adopts a new republican constitution.

XVII.G.6

Depth 2

Two factions compete to control the direction of the country: Centralists, who want a strong government and support the Catholic religion as central to Mexico’s identity; Federalists, who want Mexican states to have the power to rule themselves

XVII.G.7

Depth 2

Santa Anna becomes president of Mexico for the first time in 1833.

XVII.G.8

Depth 2

Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1835.

XVII.G.9

Depth 2

In 1836, Santa Anna leads a large army into Texas; he is defeated by smaller Texan forces.

XVII.G.10

Depth 2

Santa Anna removed from power in Mexico

XVII.G.11

Depth 2

The United States declares war on Mexico.

XVII.G.12

Depth 2

Benito Juárez rises to the forefront of Mexican politics.

XVII.G.13

Depth 2

A new constitution put in place in Mexico in 1857, creating a representative democratic republic with a strong executive

XVII.G.14

Depth 2

The Church and other conservatives oppose the new constitution; civil war breaks out.

XVII.G.15

Depth 2

Benito Juárez becomes president; United States supports Juárez.

XVII.G.16

Depth 2

Juárez reelected in 1867 and 1871; political reform

XVII.G.17

Depth 2

In 1876, Porfirio Díaz becomes president of Mexico, beginning a thirty-five-year career of government domination; reinstates the power of the Church in Mexican affairs; economic reforms

XVII.G.18

Depth 2

The elite once again dominate in political and economic power; opposition to Díaz grows.

XVII.H.1

Depth 2

In 1910, Francisco Madero campaigns for the presidency against Díaz; Madero arrested and jailed

XVII.H.2

Depth 2

Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata lead revolutionary forces, eventually removing Díaz from power.

XVII.H.3

Depth 2

Madero named president; US opposes Madero.

XVII.H.4

Depth 2

Madero overthrown when revolutionaries, including Villa, Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza, continue armed resistance.

XVII.H.5

Depth 2

Civil war continues until 1917; Carranza becomes president and oversees the rewriting of the constitution, making the president a dictator.

XVII.H.6

Depth 2

Violence continues until 1920, when Carranza is overthrown; order and constitutional government restored under the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas

Depth 2

Political revolutions were just one of the forces transforming the world during the 1700s and 1800s. New developments in technology and the organization of labor also took place during this period in what is known as the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution is difficult to pin down to specific dates and events. In some ways, the name refers to long-term trends that developed over many decades.

XVII.I.1

Depth 2

By the 1700s, new crops, techniques, and technologies were widely used to feed Europe’s population; new technologies improve the food supply.

XVII.I.2

Depth 2

The new crops included staple goods like potatoes and corn from the Americas.

XVII.I.3

Depth 2

In Europe, older ways of organizing and owning land transformed by the process of enclosure

XVII.I.4

Depth 2

Enclosure increased the power and wealth of landlords and limited that of peasants.

XVII.I.5

Depth 2

Improvements in both agriculture and industry were linked to developments in science and technology.

XVII.I.6

Depth 2

Discoveries and inventions were applied to many different areas of economic activity— mining, production of goods, farming, and transport—by people who were focused on profit.

XVII.I.7

Depth 2

The Industrial Revolution brought new means of generating power, such as the steam engine; Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819)

XVII.I.8

Depth 2

Industrialization was the process of applying new technologies and processes to make the production of goods more efficient.

XVII.I.9

Depth 2

In the 1700s, several inventions and innovations were applied to the wool-and-clothmaking industry to make it more efficient and maximize profits; Spinning Jenny invented by English inventor James Hargreaves (1721–78); American inventor, Eli Whitney (1765–1825), creates the cotton gin

XVII.I.10

Depth 2

Establishment of the factory system and subsequent urbanization

XVII.I.11

Depth 2

Rise of capitalism

XVII.I.12

Depth 2

Scottish Enlightenment philosopher and political economist Adam Smith (1723–90), one of the first theorists to describe the way free markets work; An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

XVII.I.13

Depth 2

This revolutionary period led to transformation of much of the world’s political, social, and economic systems.

XVIII.A.1

Depth 2

Europe (France, Belgium, Italy, Austria, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, Russia)

XVIII.A.2

Depth 2

Turkey

XVIII.A.3

Depth 2

India

XVIII.A.4

Depth 2

Africa (Egypt, South Africa, Algeria, Democratic Republic of Congo)

XVIII.A.5

Depth 2

Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)

XVIII.A.6

Depth 2

Asia/East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)

XVIII.A.7

Depth 2

North America (California, Hawaii)

XVIII.A.8

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean

XVIII.A.9

Depth 2

Pacific Ocean

XVIII.A.10

Depth 2

Indian Ocean

XVIII.A.11

Depth 2

Mediterranean Sea

Depth 2

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, nations around the globe were expanding. Sometimes this expansion was peaceful. Nations used trade and diplomacy to acquire resources and expand their power. In many cases, expansion meant war. Countries competed with their rivals to acquire territory and resources. These resources were used to fuel more expansion and more wars. The mightiest nations created global empires. They ruled faraway peoples and places, waged war around the world, and supplied their home populations with goods and luxuries from far afield.

XVIII.B.1

Depth 2

Nations built empires and engaged in imperialism.

XVIII.B.2

Depth 2

Imperialism also driven by competition between rival nations and the rise of nationalism globally

XVIII.B.3

Depth 2

The drive for expansion of empire grew along with the Industrial Revolution and the need for raw materials such as rubber, timber, cotton, gold, diamonds.

XVIII.B.4

Depth 2

Countries that controlled trade routes could ensure they had buyers for their goods, both at home and in the lands they controlled.

XVIII.B.5

Depth 2

New methods of transportation, weapons, and communication changed how Europe interacted with other parts of the globe.

XVIII.B.6

Depth 2

Religion played a role in this era of imperialism; Christian missionaries from Britain, France, Belgium, and the United States traveled throughout Africa and Asia with the aim of converting people to Christianity.

XVIII.B.7

Depth 2

In Japan, nationalism grew among those who wanted Japan to industrialize and build its own empire.

XVIII.C.1

Depth 2

Britain had the largest and richest empire in the world during the 1800s and well into the 1900s.

XVIII.C.2

Depth 2

The British Empire was at the height of its power during the reign of Queen Victoria, which lasted sixty-three years, from 1837 to 1901; during this time India, South Africa, Hong Kong, Egypt, and large parts of West and East Africa were added to the British Empire.

XVIII.C.3

Depth 2

India most economically important part of the British Empire

XVIII.C.4

Depth 2

In 1857, people in India rebel against British attempt to expand control of India

XVIII.C.5

Depth 2

Rebellion fails and British government take direct control of India; established the Raj

XVIII.C.6

Depth 2

The Raj was responsible for collecting taxes, enforcing laws, and ensuring that British rules about trade and agriculture were followed.

XVIII.C.7

Depth 2

British traders and business owners founded plantations in India to grow tea, indigo, and cotton; large areas of land no longer available to Indian population to grow crops; famine

XVIII.C.8

Depth 2

The Raj created considerable wealth for Britain; wealth not shared by most Indians; construction of thousands of miles of railroad

XVIII.D.1

Depth 2

David Livingstone traveled back and forth across Africa; believed that by spreading Christianity, finding trade routes, he could help abolish slavery

XVIII.D.2

Depth 2

In 1869, journalist Henry Stanley went into Central Africa in search of Livingstone. Two years later, Stanley found Livingstone; “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”

XVIII.D.3

Depth 2

In 1869 the Suez Canal, constructed and controlled by the British and French, was opened in Egypt; enabled ships to sail from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean

XVIII.D.4

Depth 2

Civil unrest in Egypt led by nationalists leads to new nationalist Egyptian government; British forces attack Egypt and force revolutionaries out of power; Britain takes direct control of Suez Canal

XVIII.D.5

Depth 2

French invasion of Algeria begins a lengthy, violent conquest; France encourages Europeans to move to Algeria; French citizens have more rights than native Algerians

XVIII.D.6

Depth 2

First permanent European settlement in South Africa created by the Dutch East India Company in 1682; Dutch settlers known as Boers; soon joined by British settlers

XVIII.D.7

Depth 2

Diamonds were discovered in South Africa in 1867 and gold in 1886; gold deposits in area largely controlled by Boers

XVIII.D.8

Depth 2

South African War (1899–1902), also known as the Anglo-Boer War, developed out of the competition for South Africa’s resources; British responded with harsh new tactics; burned the farmland of Boer settlers and put civilians into concentration camps

XVIII.E.1

Depth 2

In 1884, Germany hosted the Berlin Conference; conference designed to allow imperialist nations to decide how to divide Africa among themselves; no African nations invited to the conference

XVIII.E.2

Depth 2

Before the Berlin Conference, 80 percent of Africa was controlled by Africans; after the Berlin Conference, European powers expand their control

XVIII.E.3

Depth 2

European nations divided Africa into units that were easy for colonial governments to control; units often ignored the boundaries and divisions set by the African populations

XVIII.E.4

Depth 2

King Leopold II of Belgium created the Congo Free State in 1885 and turned it into a personal possession; Leopold’s rule brutalized the people of the Congo; resources of rubber and ivory were extracted using forced labor by the Congolese under Belgian direction

XVIII.F.1

Depth 2

The modern nation of Italy was created in the middle of the nineteenth century as a result of the desire for unification.

XVIII.F.2

Depth 2

In 1860, an Italian nationalist named Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–82) led an army of Italian nationalists, the Thousand, on a march to Sicily; the Thousand conquered Sicily and marched on Naples; efforts of Garibaldi unified most of Italy

XVIII.F.3

Depth 2

Nationalist leaders elected a new parliament; made Victor Emmanuel II the first king of modern Italy in 1861

XVIII.F.4

Depth 2

Between 1866 and 1870, Rome and Venice were added to the new Italian nation; Rome was made the nation’s capital shortly afterward.

XVIII.G.1

Depth 2

The modern nation of Germany was created in the late 1800s.

XVIII.G.2

Depth 2

The German Empire was formally established on January 18, 1871.

XVIII.G.3

Depth 2

Unifying the states into one German nation was the goal of the Prussian prime minister, Otto von Bismarck (1815–98).

XVIII.G.4

Depth 2

To weaken France, Bismarck secretly formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882; the three nations pledged to help each other if invaded by France; Bismarck also reached agreements with Russian and Britain

XVIII.G.5

Depth 2

Though Bismarck shaped German foreign policy, the German Empire was ruled by an unelected emperor, called the Kaiser; in 1888, a new emperor named Wilhelm II came to the throne.

XVIII.G.6

Depth 2

German social problems, desire for more democracy, leads to removal of Bismarck from power; change in Germany’s alliances

XVIII.G.7

Depth 2

Wilhelm II does not renew the treaty with Russia; France and Russia create a military alliance in 1894

XVIII.G.8

Depth 2

Wilhelm expands German colonial aims and German navy

XVIII.G.9

Depth 2

In 1907, Britain, France, and Russia form a new pact called the Triple Entente; the major powers in Europe now divided into two sides; the Triple Entente united Britain, France, and Russia; the Triple Alliance bound together Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

XVIII.H.1

Depth 2

In 1853, American naval officer, Commodore Matthew Perry, sailed to Japan to open diplomatic relations with the nation; Perry claimed two of Japan’s southern islands for the United States; he sailed four warships into Tokyo Bay; presented a letter and gifts to the government of Japan

XVIII.H.2

Depth 2

Japanese government made new arrangements that opened Japan’s ports to American naval and trading ships.

XVIII.H.3

Depth 2

Having annexed California and Hawaii, the United States wanted to increase trade with Asia; wanted access to Japan in order to refuel and repair their ships after long voyages across the Pacific Ocean

XVIII.H.4

Depth 2

The opening of Japan to European and American trade motivated Japan to industrialize its economy and modernize its military.

XVIII.H.5

Depth 2

In the late 1800s, Japan began building its empire in Asia, starting with with Korea, an important ally of China.

XVIII.H.6

Depth 2

In 1875, Japan forced Korea to open its borders to Japanese trade.

XVIII.H.7

Depth 2

Between 1894 and 1895, Japan and China are at war; Japan’s modern military defeated the large Chinese army; China forced to give Korea its independence and offer special trade privileges to Japan

XVIII.H.8

Depth 2

Russian treaty with China, promising to defend China’s independence

XVIII.H.9

Depth 2

In 1904, Japan attacked a Russian warship, starting the Russo-Japanese War; Russian naval fleet largely destroyed by Japanese navy; both sides sign a peace treaty to end the fighting in 1905; the Russo-Japanese War marked the first time in modern history that an Asian nation defeated a European nation

XVIII.I.1

Depth 2

In the late 1800s, Britain pressured the Qing dynasty for more access to China’s economy; the British used trade in an addictive drug, opium, to force open trade with China.

XVIII.I.2

Depth 2

The opium trade increased dramatically in the 1820s after Britain took control of some Chinese ports by military force.

XVIII.I.3

Depth 2

In 1839, Chinese officials destroyed a warehouse full of opium belonging to a British trader; the British reacted with force; this began the First Opium War; at end of war Britain has gained more control over China; gained control over Hong Kong

XVIII.I.4

Depth 2

In control of Chinese ports, Britain opened them to American, French, German, and Japanese trade ships

XVIII.I.5

Depth 2

China gave Christian missionaries access to the nation’s interior

XVIII.I.6

Depth 2

The Taiping Rebellion takes place between 1850 to 1864; rebels motivated by hunger and China’s economic problems, and religion; rebellion eventually defeated with help from British and American military leaders

XVIII.I.7

Depth 2

Russia claims land in the north of China.

XVIII.I.8

Depth 2

Second Opium War launched in 1856; Britain gains even more power in China; opium becomes legal

XVIII.I.9

Depth 2

Boxer rebellion began in in 1899; leaders aimed to remove foreigners from China and preserve Chinese culture; opposed Christian missionaries

XVIII.I.10

Depth 2

Boxer rebels overwhelmed by foreign troops; peace treaty signed in 1901

XVIII.I.11

Depth 2

Revolutionary Alliance takes shape outside of China; led by Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925); Sun leads unsuccessful revolts in south of China

XVIII.I.12

Depth 2

In 1908, the Qing rulers, Empress Cixi and Emperor Guangxu, died; control of the country was passed to three-year-old Emperor Puyi; Revolutionary Alliance continues to attack Qing government; in 1911 forces Qing dynasty to adopt a constitution; Emperor Puyi abdicates; Sun elected leader of new Republic of China

XVIII.J.1

Depth 2

The present-day Southeast Asian countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam were once called Indochina.

XVIII.J.2

Depth 2

France took control of Indochina between 1858 and 1893.

XVIII.J.3

Depth 2

Society during period of French rule in Indochina dominated by the French and small class of wealthy people; in Vietnam, land was primarily owned by French landlords

XVIII.J.4

Depth 2

Nationalist movements grew in Vietnam in the late 1800s; in 1908, Vietnamese citizens protested taxes

XVIII.J.5

Depth 2

French control of Vietnam did not end until 1954.

XVIII.K.1

Depth 2

At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned eastern Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia; the empire’s center was present-day Turkey.

XVIII.K.2

Depth 2

In the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was not as industrialized as its European neighbors.

XVIII.K.3

Depth 2

By the second half of the 1800s, Ottoman empire in debt to European powers; by the late 1800s, the Ottomans defaulted on their loans; loss of territory in eastern Europe to nationalist uprisings; Britain and other European nations took control of a large portion of the Ottoman financial system in 1881

XVIII.K.4

Depth 2

Ottoman ruler Sultan Abdulhamid II (1842–1918) ruled from 1876 to 1909; he attempted modernization and reorganization of government; in 1908 Young Turks stage a revolt; demand a new constitution and more reforms

XVIII.K.5

Depth 2

Ottoman empire loses territory in North Africa to Italy in 1912; between 1912 and 1913, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece removed the Ottomans from the Balkans

XVIII.L.1

Depth 2

Tensions in the Balkans, located in southern Europe, led to the outbreak of the First World War

XVIII.L.2

Depth 2

Tension over whether Serbs living inside Austria-Hungary would become part of the neighboring small Serbian state; Austria-Hungary’s ruler opposed this; sent Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir of Austria-Hungary, to Sarajevo, Bosnia, to attend a military parade

XVIII.L.3

Depth 2

On June 28, 1914, Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, shot and killed the archduke and his wife.

XVIII.L.4

Depth 2

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia; sets off chain of alliances; Allied Powers fight against Central Powers.

XVIII.L.5

Depth 2

Germany invaded Belgium and marched to within 30 miles of Paris; eventually halted at Marne River by French and British soldiers; the First Battle of the Marne marked the beginning of trench warfare

XVIII.L.6

Depth 2

Central Powers fought a two-front war; Eastern Front and Western Front

XVIII.L.7

Depth 2

In October 1914, Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers

XVIII.L.8

Depth 2

In 1915, Allied Forces engaged in sea and land assault on Ottoman controlled Gallipoli

XVIII.L.9

Depth 2

In 1915, Italy agreed to join the Allies.

XVIII.L.10

Depth 2

Germany declared the waters around Britain to be a war zone; threatened to sink any

XVIII.L.11

Depth 2

ships that entered British waters; September 1915, German submarine fired torpedoes to sink the American passenger ship Lusitania, killing more than 1,200 people, including around 120 Americans

XVIII.L.12

Depth 2

In 1916, Germany and Allied troops from France and Britain fought at the Battle of the Somme in France, one of the deadliest battles of the war.

XVIII.L.13

Depth 2

In 1917, the United States entered the war, fighting on the side of the Allied Forces.

XVIII.L.14

Depth 2

In 1917, Russian armed forces revolt and bring down the Czar of Russia and his government; second revolution in Russia occurs, resulting in Russia leaving the war

XVIII.L.15

Depth 2

Central Powers move troops to the Western Front; Allied Forces reinforced by American troops

XVIII.L.16

Depth 2

In July 1918, Germans began their final attack of the war in the Second Battle of the Marne.

XVIII.L.17

Depth 2

On November 11, 1918, the war officially ended with an armistice agreement.

XVIII.L.18

Depth 2

World War I was fought on land, sea, and in the air; when war declared, Britain had largest navy in the world

XVIII.L.19

Depth 2

At the time, World War I (the Great War) was the largest and deadliest war ever fought; lasted from 1914 to 1918; sixteen million soldiers and civilians killed

XVIII.L.20

Depth 2

Treaty of Versailles, an agreement between the Allied Powers and Germany, officially ended World War I; treaty weakened and punished Germany; Germany forced to accept treaty terms on June 28, 1919; unable to pay vast reparations

XVIII.L.21

Depth 2

Full force of industrial economies used to supply massive armies; science, engineering, new technologies, modern weaponry used by both sides; Germany the first to use poison gas; British used a new armored vehicle called a tank

XVIII.M.1

Depth 2

At the beginning of World War I, Russia not as industrialized as other powerful nations in Europe

XVIII.M.2

Depth 2

Russia suffered more military deaths in World War I than any other nation.

XVIII.M.3

Depth 2

The Russian revolution began because of strikes in the city of Petrograd, (St. Petersburg), and a march led by women on International Women’s Day; Russians were hungry and tired of the war; Soldiers in the city refused to oppose the striking workers

XVIII.M.4

Depth 2

Bands of workers and soldiers formed self-governing groups called soviets; the soviet in Petrograd took over the city

XVIII.M.5

Depth 2

Czar Nicholas II removed; new Provisional Government organized to rule Russia

XVIII.M.6

Depth 2

Government’s new leader, Aleksandr Kerensky (1881–1970), wrote new laws, including ones that protected freedom of speech and equal rights.

XVIII.M.7

Depth 2

Riots of hungry workers break out; discontent sparks Bolshevik Revolution on November 6 and 7, 1917.

XVIII.M.8

Depth 2

The Bolsheviks were a revolutionary communist party; Bolshevik leader, Vladmir Lenin (1870–1924), aimed to overthrow the czar’s regime.

XVIII.M.9

Depth 2

Bolsheviks believed in a communist society in which private property is abolished; all people work together to meet society’s needs; Bolsheviks overthrow Provisional Government

XVIII.M.10

Depth 2

Lenin and the Bolsheviks turned the Russian Empire into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

XVIII.M.11

Depth 2

The USSR became the world’s first communist nation.

XVIII.M.12

Depth 2

Lenin’s government made a peace deal with Germany in 1918; the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

XVIII.M.13

Depth 2

Supporters of the czar, the Whites, take up arms; Bolsheviks form the Red Army; Russian Civil War (1918–20) resulted in victory for the Bolsheviks; Czar Nicholas, his wife, and their five children executed by the Bolsheviks in July, 1918; millions of Russians died in the Civil War

XIX.A.1

Depth 2

Europe (France, Belgium, Italy, Austria, Germany, Spain, Great Britain, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Russia)

XIX.A.2

Depth 2

India

XIX.A.3

Depth 2

Pakistan

XIX.A.4

Depth 2

Africa (Ethiopia, Algeria, Egypt, North Africa)

XIX.A.5

Depth 2

Southeast Asia (Philippines)

XIX.A.6

Depth 2

Asia/East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)

XIX.A.7

Depth 2

North America (California, Hawaii)

XIX.A.8

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean

XIX.A.9

Depth 2

Pacific Ocean

XIX.A.10

Depth 2

Indian Ocean

XIX.A.11

Depth 2

Mediterranean Sea

Depth 2

World War II (1939–45) was the largest and most destructive conflict in history. Fifty million people died during the war; millions of others were wounded or driven from their homes. Two opposing factions battled around the world for global supremacy. Great Britain and France led the Allied Powers until 1941, when they were joined by the Soviet Union and the United States. The Axis Powers were led by Germany, Italy, and Japan. The stakes of World War II were huge. The very existence of free, tolerant, and democratic nations was threatened, as were the lives of millions.

XIX.C.1

Depth 2

Origins of World War II rooted in the ending of World War I; emperor of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, forced to step down as the German leader on November 9, 1918

XIX.C.2

Depth 2

People of Germany proclaimed a new, democratic republic—the Weimar Republic.

XIX.C.3

Depth 2

German economy battered by World War I; new republic owed 132 billion marks to the Allies for damages; Germany’s inability to pay caused political and economic crisis; hyperinflation

XIX.C.4

Depth 2

Economic and political crises prompted people to take extreme political options.

XIX.C.5

Depth 2

Far-right leader, Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) joined the German Worker’s Party in 1919; party name changed to the National Socialist German Worker’s Party; became known as Nazis; by 1921, Hitler leader of Nazis; saw real Socialists as enemies

XIX.C.6

Depth 2

Hitler and followers tried to seize control of the government of Bavaria; Hitler arrested, tried, and jailed for nine months; in jail Hitler writes Mein Kampf, or My Struggle; described his hatred of Jewish people; outlined the destiny of the “master race”

XIX.C.7

Depth 2

Hitler wanted to reunite Germany with territories it had lost and with other Germanspeaking nations; wanted Germany to expand eastward; called for Lebensraum, a country for “pure” Germans

XIX.C.8

Depth 2

Hitler wanted to remove multiple groups from Germany, including Jews, Roma, people with disabilities, communists, and anyone considered the enemy of the state.

XIX.C.9

Depth 2

The ideology of fascism, which Hitler followed, promotes the supremacy of the nationstate and its primary ethnic group above all else.

XIX.C.10

Depth 2

Hitler elected to the parliament of the Weimar Republic, the Reichstag, in 1932

XIX.C.11

Depth 2

U.S. stock market crashed in October 1929; resulting global economic depression hit Germany hard; U.S. government demanded money owed by Germany be repaid; German banks failed and economy crumbled

XIX.C.12

Depth 2

In 1933, Hitler named chancellor of the Weimar Republic

XIX.C.13

Depth 2

Hitler put the constitution of the Weimar Republic on hold; stripped citizens of their legal rights; proclaimed Germany to be the Third Reich; took direct control of education, the economy, and the legal system

XIX.C.14

Depth 2

Hitler proclaimed himself Führer (leader) of Germany in 1934.

XIX.C.15

Depth 2

Hitler’s government used a mixture of laws and direct intimidation and violence to attack Jewish people and strip them of their rights and property.

XIX.C.16

Depth 2

November 9–10, 1938, Kristallnacht

XIX.D.1

Depth 2

Benito Mussolini (1853–1945) ruled Italy from 1922 until 1943; authoritarian dictatorship; political ideology of Fascism established in Italy

XIX.D.2

Depth 2

Armed gangs of Fascists, called Blackshirts, maintained order.

XIX.D.3

Depth 2

Mussolini’s government shared several Nazi ideals; hatred of democracy; belief in strong nationalism; used propaganda and education to promote ideology

XIX.D.4

Depth 2

Italy invaded the African nation of Ethiopia.

XIX.D.5

Depth 2

In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler signed the Pact of Steel; Italy and Germany agreed to support one another in event of war

XIX.E.1

Depth 2

Josef Stalin (1878–1953), leader of the Soviet Union before and during World War II

XIX.E.2

Depth 2

Stalin wanted to end capitalism in the Soviet Union; wanted the Soviet Union to be an industrial power; ordered farms to be collectivized

XIX.E.3

Depth 2

To build up industry, Stalin set high expectations for workers; those who failed, as well as political prisoners, sent to brutal work camps called gulags

XIX.E.4

Depth 2

Stalin understood the Nazi threat to Russia; to gain time and build up Soviet industry and armed forces, signed a peace deal with Germany

XIX.F.1

Depth 2

Spain, China, and Japan were already involved in their own wars when World War II began in September, 1939.

XIX.F.2

Depth 2

Spanish Civil War: Hitler and Mussolini supported Spanish nationalists; Stalin supported Spanish Republicans

XIX.F.3

Depth 2

Francisco Franco became dictator of Spain; ruled until his death in 1975.

XIX.F.4

Depth 2

Japan invaded China in 1931, taking control of Manchuria; by 1937, war had broken out between both countries.

XIX.G.1

Depth 2

German annexation of Austria in March, 1938

XIX.G.2

Depth 2

Initial policy of appeasement in relation to German expansion

XIX.G.3

Depth 2

In 1938, Germany, Italy, Great Britain, and France agree that Czechoslovakia must give up the Sudetenland to Germany; Germany invades rest of Czechoslovakia in March, 1939

XIX.G.4

Depth 2

Germany invades Poland from west on September 1, 1939

XIX.G.5

Depth 2

France and Great Britain declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939; Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, United States, Soviet Union, China); Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan)

XIX.G.6

Depth 2

Soviet Union invaded Poland from east; Stalin and Hitler agree to divide Poland between their two nations; Hitler allows Soviet Union to claim Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and occupation of southeastern Finland

XIX.G.7

Depth 2

German invasions of western Europe used new equipment and tactics; fast armored tanks helped Germany employ a military tactic called Blitzkrieg (lightning war).

XIX.G.8

Depth 2

France had largest army in Europe at start of World War II

XIX.G.9

Depth 2

Germany invades and captures Denmark and Norway, April, 1940

XIX.G.10

Depth 2

German forces invade France; enter Paris on June 14, 1940; French government surrenders; France divided into two territories

XIX.G.11

Depth 2

Battle of Britain

XIX.H.1

Depth 2

Germany invades Soviet Union in June, 1941.

XIX.H.2

Depth 2

Battle of Stalingrad (1942–1943); one of largest battles in history; ultimately first major defeat for Germany

XIX.I.1

Depth 2

British, French, German, and Italian forces engaged in battles in North Africa.

XIX.I.2

Depth 2

In July, 1942, British and German forces clash in El Alamein, Egypt; Germans defeated

XIX.I.3

Depth 2

In November, 1942, Britain and US forces reclaim areas under German control; by summer 1943, German and Italian forces in Africa completely defeated

XIX.J.1

Depth 2

At first, many Jewish people sent to labor camps; in 1942, Nazis leaders set in motion plan to kill Jewish people en masse; concentration camps set up to do so; “final solution”

XIX.J.2

Depth 2

Six million Jewish people killed in the Holocaust

XIX.J.3

Depth 2

In 1943, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States signed the Moscow Declaration of German Atrocities; the nations pledged to punish Germany for the crimes it committed during the Holocaust.

XIX.K.1

Depth 2

The United States entered World War II in December, 1941, after Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

XIX.K.2

Depth 2

Allied leaders developed Operation Overlord, a plan to invade German-occupied France from Great Britain; Allied troops would cross the English Channel and land on French shores; U.S. general Dwight Eisenhower led the operation

XIX.K.3

Depth 2

Allied troops invaded German-occupied France on June 6, 1944, also known as D-Day.

XIX.K.4

Depth 2

Paris liberated from Nazi occupation on August 25, 1944

XIX.K.5

Depth 2

Battle of the Bulge (1944–1945); Germany loses; Allied troops begin march to Berlin, Germany

XIX.K.6

Depth 2

Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt meet at the Russian town of Yalta in February 1945; agree that Soviet Union could ensure eastern Europe establishes governments friendly to the Soviet Union; Soviet Union agrees to free elections in those countries; France to take part in German occupation

XIX.K.7

Depth 2

Soviet Union agrees to enter war in the Pacific to help defeat China in exchange for Japan’s territory in China.

XIX.K.8

Depth 2

With Allied troops closing in on Berlin, Hitler and his closest advisors fled to an underground bunker; on April 30, 1945, Hitler committed suicide.

XIX.K.9

Depth 2

The Nazis finally surrendered to the Soviet army in Berlin on May 8, 1945; this date is celebrated as Victory in Europe Day, or V-E Day.

XIX.L.1

Depth 2

In April 1942, American and Filipino soldiers on the Bataan Peninsula, Philippines, defeated by the Japanese; resulted in the Bataan Death March

XIX.L.2

Depth 2

The Battle of Midway, June 3–6, 1942, helped slow Japan’s takeover of the Pacific

XIX.L.3

Depth 2

Japan captured Guadalcanal on July 6, 1942, and began building an air force base.

XIX.L.4

Depth 2

American troops landed on Guadalcanal on August 7; six-month battle resulted in American control of the island

XIX.L.5

Depth 2

The Allies attacked Iwo Jima, site of crucial Japanese military base, by air and by sea on February 19, 1945

XIX.M.1

Depth 2

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped a nuclear bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima; three days later, after the Japanese government refused to surrender, the United States dropped a nuclear bomb on the city of Nagasaki.

XIX.M.2

Depth 2

Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945; the Second World War ended.

XIX.N.1

Depth 2

On August 1, 1945, the leaders of Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States announced the Potsdam Agreement; Germany split into four occupation zones, with France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States each overseeing one zone; Allies took measures to weaken Germany’s military and limit its industry; canceled Naziera laws and captured and tried Nazi war criminals

XIX.N.2

Depth 2

The peacemaking process with Japan was led by the United States; Japan’s emperor allowed to remain in power, but he had to declare that he was not a god; the United States helped establish a democracy and put into place a new constitution that established a House of Representatives elected by both men and women

XIX.N.3

Depth 2

Led by U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill, the Allied nations signed the Atlantic Charter in 1941; this document calls for nations to cooperate to ensure world peace; the organization known as the United Nations was born in 1945 with the UN Charter

XIX.N.4

Depth 2

The General Assembly created; a legislature made up of representatives from nations around the world; five most powerful Allied nations—China, France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States—were made permanent members of the Security Council, which would also have rotating representation from smaller nations

XIX.N.5

Depth 2

In 1948, the UN created the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

XIX.N.6

Depth 2

Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) leader of Indian Congress Party; Indian independence negotiated in 1947; resulted in creation of two nations—India and Pakistan

XIX.N.7

Depth 2

In 1917, Great Britain issued the Balfour Declaration, which formalized the British government’s support for the creation of a national home for Jewish people in Palestine.

XIX.N.8

Depth 2

Soviet Union and the United States emerged as the world’s superpowers.

XX.A.1

Depth 2

East and Southeast Asia

XX.A.2

Depth 2

China

XX.A.3

Depth 2

Taiwan

XX.A.4

Depth 2

Japan

XX.A.5

Depth 2

North Korea

XX.A.6

Depth 2

South Korea

XX.A.7

Depth 2

Vietnam

XX.A.8

Depth 2

North America

XX.A.9

Depth 2

Atlantic Ocean

XX.A.10

Depth 2

Pacific Ocean

XX.A.11

Depth 2

Sea of Japan (East Sea)

Depth 2

Communist governments rose to power in several Southeast Asian countries after World War II. Communist ideals appealed to people who had experienced little opportunity under the colonial system in Southeast Asia. Others in those countries, however, rejected communism and actively fought against it. Wars in Southeast Asia became theaters of conflict in the Cold War.

XX.B.1

Depth 2

Inspired by the ideas of Marx and Lenin, the Chinese Communist Party was formed; Mao Zedong was a leading member.

XX.B.2

Depth 2

Outbreak of Chinese Civil War (1927–1949) in which National Party and Communist Party opposed each other

XX.B.3

Depth 2

Jiang Jieshi leader of the Nationalist Party

XX.B.4

Depth 2

Mao became the leader of the Communist Party; led his army on the longest wartime military march ever recorded (the Long March).

XX.B.5

Depth 2

Chinese Civil War paused in 1937; Nationalists and Communists united to fight expansionist aggression from Japan.

XX.B.6

Depth 2

Major part of World War II in Asia, the Second Sino-Japanese War, began with attacks on Chinese cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Nanjing; alliance between Nationalists and Communists continued through World War II; the civil war resumed after 1945

XX.B.7

Depth 2

After four years of post–World War II fighting, Mao’s forces won; declared China to be the People’s Republic of China

XX.B.8

Depth 2

Jiang’s Nationalists fled to the island of Taiwan; set up an anti-communist, authoritarian government and continued calling it the Republic of China

XX.C.1

Depth 2

Mao remakes China into a communist nation; seized lands from private ownership; collectivization; forced increase of coal mining and steel production.

XX.C.2

Depth 2

Communist Party outlawed Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, and other religions.

XX.C.3

Depth 2

Implementation of the Great Leap Forward in late 1950s; five-year plan; use of untested methods in irrigation and farming; people forced to join communes; crop yields fell; millions of people died during period of famine; changes in industrial production also failed; five-year plan halted after three years

XX.C.4

Depth 2

Mao resigned as chairman of the People’s Republic of China; remained chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, a more powerful role than chairman of the country

XX.D.1

Depth 2

Mao embarked on the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution; aimed to defeat enemies and remake Chinese society; schools closed; young people told to speak out against bourgeois values and the people who represented them; youths organized into paramilitary groups called the Red Guards; Red Guards dispersed to rural areas

XX.D.2

Depth 2

Lin Biao named as Mao’s successor; Lin Biao and other military leaders planned coup to unseat Mao; Lin Biao died in 1971; Mao dies in 1976

XX.D.3

Depth 2

Starting in 1977, Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, favored allowing more free market practices to guide China’s development; he led the country for the next twenty years, opening its market to trade with the United States and other Western countries; allowed more personal liberty; quashed democratic movements

XX.D.4

Depth 2

In 1989, students gathered in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square to peacefully demonstrate for greater freedom; Deng sent in military forces to control the crowd; hundreds of peaceful demonstrators killed

XX.D.5

Depth 2

China became the largest manufacturing country and the second-largest economy in the world.

XX.E.1

Depth 2

After its World War II defeat, Japan surrendered Korea, which it had occupied since the early 1900s, to the Soviet Union and the United States; the Soviets occupied the northern half; the United States took control of the southern half

XX.E.2

Depth 2

By the end of the 1940s, the North was a communist country and the South was an anticommunist nation; both led by dictators

XX.E.3

Depth 2

In 1950, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung sent troops to invade South Korea; North Korean troops, with the support of the Soviet Union, quickly conquered almost all the peninsula.

XX.E.4

Depth 2

The United Nations sent military forces to assist South Korea; mostly American troops led by United States general Douglas MacArthur

XX.E.5

Depth 2

Concerned UN forces might cross the border, Mao Zedong sent Chinese troops to assist the North Koreans; by early 1951, the communists had pushed UN forces back to the thirty-eighth parallel

XX.E.6

Depth 2

In 1953, two sides agreed to a cease-fire; South Korea, which encompassed all Korean territory south of the thirty-eighth parallel, continued to be a key ally of the United States in East Asia; North Korea, called the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, remained communist; both Koreas were simultaneously admitted to the United Nations in 1991

XX.F.1

Depth 2

First president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, was anti-communist, but an authoritarian; political and economic instability caused by growing opposition forced Rhee out of power in 1960.

XX.F.2

Depth 2

Land reforms approved during Rhee’s reign opened property ownership to more people and helped create strong economic growth from the 1960s onward; population boomed; more people gained an education; a middle class emerged; growth of urbanization; enormous population growth of South Korea’s capital, Seoul

XX.F.3

Depth 2

People of South Korea lived under repressive rule for decades; South Koreans directly elected a president for the first time in 1987.

XX.F.4

Depth 2

In 1988, the Olympic Games were held in Seoul; changed the world view of South Korea

XX.F.5

Depth 2

Today, South Korea is one of the ten largest economies in the world.

XX.F.6

Depth 2

Dictator Kim Il-sung continued to rule North Korea after the Korean War.

XX.F.7

Depth 2

Propaganda glorified Kim as the “Great Leader”; he isolated North Korea from the rest of the world.

XX.F.8

Depth 2

Kim Il-sung died in 1994; he was replaced by his son Kim Jong-il; collapse of Soviet Union impacted North Korea’s economy; economic hardship and starvation

XX.F.9

Depth 2

Kim Jong-il died in 2011; replaced by his son Kim Jong-un

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Vietnam became a colony of France in the late 1800s; after World War II, communist Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh led an independence movement to end French rule; during the war, Ho led opposition forces in the use of guerilla tactics against occupying Japanese troops

XX.G.1

Depth 2

In 1954, Ho’s forces defeated the French at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu; France withdrew and Vietnam gained independence.

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Vietnam split into two countries; communist government in the North; anti-communist government in the South; leaders from both agreed to hold elections to reunite Vietnam; not supported by United States; in 1959, Ho Chi Minh and North Korea declared war on South Korea

XX.G.1

Depth 2

United States viewed Vietnam as part of larger Cold War struggle against communism; U.S. president Dwight Eisenhower believed that the fall of Vietnam to communists would lead to the spread of communism across Southeast Asia

XX.G.1

Depth 2

U.S. Congress sent hundreds of millions of dollars to help the South Vietnamese government of Ngo Dinh Diem fight communist guerillas (Viet Cong).

XX.G.1

Depth 2

In 1964, the United States’ involvement increased in 1964; an American warship in the Gulf of Tonkin reported it had been attacked by the North Vietnamese (Historians now accept that this attack never happened).

XX.G.1

Depth 2

U.S. forces began bombing North Vietnam

XX.G.1

Depth 2

In January 1968, the Viet Cong launched the Tet Offensive; series of attacks on South Vietnamese cities conducted during Tet, the Vietnamese new year

XX.G.1

Depth 2

American soldiers brutally killed and tortured more than five hundred people in the My Lai massacre; public opinion in the United States began to turn against the war

XX.G.1

Depth 2

President Lyndon Johnson succeeded by Richard Nixon in 1968

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Cease-fire agreement finally reached in1973; the United States began to pull its troops out of Vietnam; two years later, the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon fell to communist forces; North and South Vietnam united under communist rule

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Many Vietnamese people who opposed communism fled the country.

XX.G.1

Depth 2

Vietnam opened its doors to Western countries in 1986.

XX.H.1

Depth 2

After World War II, the Allies placed Japan under military occupation for seven years; occupation largely directed by the United State under leadership of General Douglas MacArthur

XX.H.2

Depth 2

During the occupation, the political system of Japan was transformed; new constitution included a bill of rights that said the country would no longer maintain a military, except for self-defense

XX.H.3

Depth 2

Land reforms included the transfer of ownership of farmland from landlords to farmers, ended last remnants of feudal system

XX.H.4

Depth 2

Workers granted more rights; establishment of unions; women granted right to vote; academic freedom guaranteed

XX.H.5

Depth 2

Population moved from countryside to cities such as Tokyo

XX.H.6

Depth 2

Economy of Japan experienced rapid growth as mechanization led to greater efficiencies in industry and agriculture; huge success producing goods for export such as cars, cameras, and televisions

XX.H.7

Depth 2

Japan experienced recession and recovery; remains one of world’s economic powerhouses

XXI.A.1

Depth 2

Europe

XXI.A.2

Depth 2

Balkans

XXI.A.3

Depth 2

Russia, Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Greece, Estonia, Armenia, Belarus, Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Slovenia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Ireland, Northern Ireland

XXI.A.4

Depth 2

Turkey

XXI.A.5

Depth 2

Afghanistan

XXI.A.6

Depth 2

Pakistan

XXI.A.7

Depth 2

United States

XXI.A.8

Depth 2

Canada

Depth 2

The end of World War II did not mean the end of conflict and competition in Europe. After the war’s end, the clash of ideas between democratic capitalism and authoritarian communism threatened to plunge Europe into another conflict. The next forty-five years were characterized by a long-simmering tension between two armed camps. The Cold War shaped European politics through the early 1990s, and its consequences are still seen to this day.

XXI.C.1

Depth 2

In eastern Europe, after World War II, local communist parties gained support among the citizens.

XXI.C.2

Depth 2

Western nations feared communist revolutions in Western countries; Western leaders, especially in the United States, viewed rebuilding Europe as way to counter the threat of communism

XXI.C.3

Depth 2

Czechoslovak Communist Party won 39 percent of the vote in 1946 elections; seized full control in 1948; arrested their political opponents; Czechoslovakia fully under Soviet control

XXI.C.4

Depth 2

Several countries, such as Estonia and Belarus, fully absorbed into Soviet Union

XXI.C.5

Depth 2

In 1948, President Truman established the European Recovery Program, (the Marshall Plan), named for Truman’s secretary of state, George C. Marshall (1880–1959).

XXI.C.6

Depth 2

European countries that took aid from the program saw their gross domestic product (GDP) grow during the three and a half years the Marshall Plan was in effect.

XXI.C.7

Depth 2

In the West, in 1946, British leader Winston Churchill said that an “iron curtain” had been lowered across Europe, along the borders of the region under Soviet control; wanted western European and American leaders to strengthen themselves politically and militarily

XXI.C.8

Depth 2

Stalin blamed World War II on problems within and between capitalist countries; argued that war was inevitable as long as capitalism existed; believed capitalist competition led to constant struggle for resources and caused “uneven development”

XXI.D.1

Depth 2

Germany reflected this divide; had been divided in half by the occupying Allies; West Germany, officially known as the Federal Republic of Germany, was democratic, capitalist; East Germany, or the German Democratic Republic, was communist and part of the Soviet alliance

XXI.D.2

Depth 2

In 1948, the Western alliance of the United States, Great Britain, and France began to plan a new West German state; began issuing deutsche marks in West Berlin; Soviet leaders, were not been consulted; responded by setting up a blockade of West Berlin; Western nations flew large quantities of food and supplies over East German territory to Berlin; blockaded East Germany; blockades lifted in 1949

XXI.D.3

Depth 2

In 1949, creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a formal military alliance among the Western allied nations

XXI.D.4

Depth 2

Communist countries of eastern Europe entered a similar agreement in 1955; the Warsaw Treaty Organization, or Warsaw Pact, originally consisted of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.

XXI.D.5

Depth 2

After the United States bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, the Soviets launched a special project to develop nuclear technology; achieved success in 1949; other world powers joined the atomic race; Great Britain conducted its first nuclear test in 1952; France followed in 1960

XXI.D.6

Depth 2

One rationale behind the development of nuclear weapons was deterrence.

XXI.D.7

Depth 2

Tense first phase of the Cold War ended with the death of Joseph Stalin on March 5, 1953; Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971)

XXI.D.8

Depth 2

In 1956, Hungarian prime minister Imre Nagy (1896–1958) declared that non-Communists would be allowed to participate in running the government; also declared Hungary’s neutrality in the contest between West and East; the Soviets invaded Hungary

XXI.D.9

Depth 2

Construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961

XXI.E.1

Depth 2

Baby boom of the postwar period, especially large number of births from 1945 to 1952, added millions of young people to Europe.

XXI.E.2

Depth 2

Advertising, pop culture, and social events targeted young adults, viewed as the leaders of new cultural and social moment

XXI.E.3

Depth 2

Youth culture and youth politics; in May 1968, a French student-led protest became an uprising that included participants from across society; in 1968, citizens of Czechoslovakia rose up during a period called the Prague Spring; Soviet troops and their allies invaded Czechoslovakia on August 20–21, 1968

XXI.E.4

Depth 2

European economic boom led to the rise of European welfare states, in which governments provided benefits such as free university education, free health care, and generous pensions; Great Britain established the National Health Service to provide health care to all citizens.

XXI.E.5

Depth 2

From 1968 to 1998, a conflict called the Troubles erupted in the six counties of Northern Ireland (part of Great Britain); unionist and republican paramilitaries fought campaigns of terrorism against each other and the British; the two sides agreed to end the conflict in 1998; peace deal, called the Good Friday Agreement

XXI.F.1

Depth 2

Between 1989 and 1992, the Soviet Union was abolished, the Soviet bloc broke up, and the Cold War ended; reasons: economic, social, and political

XXI.F.2

Depth 2

Soviet economic crisis put pressure on the Soviet government to enact reforms; resistance to change dominated by elderly Soviet men who prioritized building military power above the needs of Russian citizens; years of stagnation began after Leonid Brezhnev (1906–82) became leader of the Soviet Union in 1964

XXI.F.3

Depth 2

In 1978, Afghanistan’s government was replaced in a coup led by communist army officers; opposition resulted in Russian invasion in 1979; Soviet army failed to control anything beyond the major cities of Afghanistan; thousands of Afghans were killed, and millions more fled to neighboring countries such as Pakistan; Western powers sold weapons to Afghan fighters; Soviet Union withdrew in 1989

XXI.F.4

Depth 2

Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931), became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985; worked to modernize and streamline the Soviet economy and government; proposed a series of cultural reforms called glasnost (openness); eventually, Soviet leadership allowed democratic reforms, including contested elections and secret ballots, for the first time in its history

XXI.F.5

Depth 2

In the 1980s, independent trade unions in Poland led campaigns for workers’ rights and social change; the largest union, led by Lech Wałęsa (b. 1943), helped force the Polish government to restore a democratic parliament and hold elections in 1989

XXI.F.6

Depth 2

November 9, 1989, Berlin Wall collapsed

XXI.F.7

Depth 2

The Soviet Union reacted to popular movements by removing troops from countries that were becoming democratic, such East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland; in 1990, Gorbachev agreed that East and West Germany should be reunited

XXI.F.8

Depth 2

The former Soviet Union broke up into fifteen independent countries, including Russia, Armenia, and Estonia.

XXI.F.9

Depth 2

New Russian president Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007) in charge of ending the Soviet system and beginning a transition to a liberal, democratic, and capitalist country

XXI.G.1

Depth 2

Between June 1991 and May 1992, the five Yugoslavian regions— Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Macedonia—declared their independence; population came from many ethnicities

XXI.G.2

Depth 2

Conflict arose between the majority and minority ethnic and religious populations; Serbs in Croatia wanted to join Serbia; Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted independence from the Muslim majority

XXI.G.3

Depth 2

After two years of fighting, the United Nations sent humanitarian aid to civilians and set up safe zones for refugees; UN forces did not defend safe zones; Serbian forces massacred their opponents; fighting stopped in 1995 after NATO agreed to send troops to stop Serbs from attacking Bosnian forces

XXI.G.4

Depth 2

In Serbia, ethnically Albanian and Muslim citizens formed the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA); rebellion prompted brutal attacks by the Yugoslav army, Serbian police, and Serbian soldiers; thousands of Kosovans driven from their homes; United Nations and NATO forces helped establish a fragile peace; Kosovo declared itself independent in 2008; neither Serbia nor Russia recognized its status as a separate state

XXI.H.1

Depth 2

The formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 created a common market among the member nations; EEC also began process of creating Europe-wide institutions; the European Parliament has power to consult on European laws and policies; the European Court of Justice hears cases that affect member nations

XXI.H.2

Depth 2

European Union (EU), the successor to the EEC, formed in 1993 and today has twentyseven member countries; unit of currency the euro

XXII.A.1

Depth 2

Europe

XXII.A.2

Depth 2

Russia

XXII.A.3

Depth 2

United States

XXII.A.4

Depth 2

Africa

XXII.A.5

Depth 2

Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Chad, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Algeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Libya, Republic of Rwanda, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt

XXII.A.6

Depth 2

Balkans

XXII.A.7

Depth 2

Middle East

XXII.A.8

Depth 2

Turkey

XXII.A.9

Depth 2

Afghanistan

XXII.A.10

Depth 2

Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon

XXII.A.11

Depth 2

Arabian Peninsula

XXII.A.12

Depth 2

Sinai Peninsula

Depth 2

Before World War I, Africa and the Middle East were divided up among European empires. Following the collapse of these empires after World War II, a wave of independence movements in Africa and the Middle East brought new nations into existence. The colonial era had left some areas richer and more developed than others. Colonial governments had divided people along racial, religious, and ethnic lines. In the postcolonial era, the former empires—and the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union—had business and military interests in Africa and the Middle East that caused them to interfere with the newly free nations.

XXII.B.1

Depth 2

Colonization of Africa via private companies (British East Africa Company), governed directly by home nation (direct rule), indirect rule; settler colonies (South Africa, Zimbabwe)

XXII.B.2

Depth 2

Infrastructure developed to transport valuable raw materials from mines and plantations to markets and ports

XXII.C.1

Depth 2

World War II weakened colonial rule in Africa; many Africans had fought as part of the Allied armies against the Axis Powers.

XXII.C.2

Depth 2

In 1954, Algerian nationalists launched a war of independence; bloody war against French followed; in 1962, France accepted Algerian independence

XXII.C.3

Depth 2

Kenyans seek independence from the British; Mau Mau independence fighters; fighting ended in 1960; British allowed elections to take place early the next year; elections created a government that wrote a new constitution for an independent Kenya

XXII.C.4

Depth 2

Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978), a leader in the movement for independence, became Kenya’s first prime minister.

XXII.C.5

Depth 2

Kwame Nkrumah (1909–72) formed the Convention People’s Party (CPP), which gained mass support among the people of the Gold Coast.

XXII.C.6

Depth 2

Nkrumah won election to the Gold Coast’s new parliament and became prime minister in 1952; the CPP’s independence platform gave the party a large majority of seats in the Gold Coast parliament; used this power to formally gain the Gold Coast’s independence

XXII.C.7

Depth 2

In 1957, the Gold Coast was recognized as an independent nation and renamed Ghana.

XXII.C.8

Depth 2

Fourteen former French colonies in Africa became independent in 1960, as well as two British colonies and one Belgian colony; the year 1960 came to be known as the “Year of Africa.”

XXII.D.1

Depth 2

Newly independent African nations faced challenges; borders had been drawn by European powers; many of the new countries contained conflicting ethnic and religious groups

XXII.D.2

Depth 2

New nations aimed to use independence to benefit their own people; continuing trade in African resources helped grow the economy; foreign nations, however, maintained economic and political influence

XXII.D.3

Depth 2

Libya gained independence in 1951; in 1959 oil discovered; king of Libya favored western powers; Libya’s military staged a coup in 1969, bringing Muammar alQaddafi (1942–2011) to power

XXII.D.4

Depth 2

Rwanda gained independence in 1961; two main groups in Rwanda—the Tutsi and the Hutu; traditionally, the Tutsi are smaller, wealthier group; the Hutu majority poor farmers

XXII.D.5

Depth 2

In 1994, Hutu extremists launched campaign of mass murder directed at Tutsis and moderate Hutus.

XXII.D.6

Depth 2

Mobutu Sese Seko (1930–97) ruled the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) as a dictator from 1965 to 1997; Idi Amin (1924–2003) in Uganda

XXII.D.7

Depth 2

In Ghana, Jerry Rawlings took power in a coup in 1981; was democratically elected in 1992; Rawlings brought political stability to the country and implemented economic reforms

XXII.D.8

Depth 2

Namibia gained independence from South Africa in 1990; established politically stable democracy; has one of the strongest economies in Africa

XXII.E.1

Depth 2

South Africa won its independence from Great Britain in 1910, but most of its people were not free; Black population did not have the same rights and power as the white minority that controlled the government and the economy

XXII.E.2

Depth 2

In 1913, South Africa’s government passed the Land Act; led to the forced removal of Black South Africans from their land; their property sold by the government to white farmers at a reduced cost; Black South Africans were relocated to other areas, where they lived in poverty

XXII.E.3

Depth 2

The white minority officially imposed a system called apartheid in 1948; under this system, white and non-white people were required to live in separate areas and could not use the same public facilities.

XXII.E.4

Depth 2

Organization of Black South Africans, the African National Congress (ANC), fought apartheid policies

XXII.E.5

Depth 2

South African government tried to silence the ANC; in 1960, police forces killed sixtynine unarmed demonstrators (Sharpeville massacre); government outlawed the ANC

XXII.E.6

Depth 2

Nelson Mandela, who had first led peaceful protests against apartheid, became the leader of an armed wing of the ANC, called Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation).

XXII.E.7

Depth 2

In 1964, Mandela and other ANC leaders sentenced to life in prison

XXII.E.8

Depth 2

South African police killed about six hundred Black South Africans during protests in the township of Soweto in 1976.

XXII.E.9

Depth 2

International community outraged; began to pressure South African government to end apartheid and release Mandela from prison; introduction of sanctions

XXII.E.10

Depth 2

President F. W. de Klerk, in 1990, legalized the ANC and freed Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders.

XXII.E.11

Depth 2

South African government began to end apartheid; in 1994 allowed South Africans of every race to vote; Nelson Mandela elected president

XXII.E.12

Depth 2

Apartheid had done lasting damage to Black South Africans; by the early twenty-first century, white South Africans still controlled almost three-quarters of the country’s farmland.

XXII.F.1

Depth 2

African cities and nations have emerged as global leaders in science and technology in the new millennium; the cities of Algiers in Algeria, Lagos in Nigeria, Nairobi in Kenya, and Johannesburg in South Africa are all considered major international centers for business and culture.

XXII.F.2

Depth 2

Innovators across the continent have come up with new solutions to age-old problems: how to transport water and bring medical care to rural areas; addressed new challenges; expanding mobile and Internet access; many inventions rooted in computer and mobile technology, an area in which African nations are leading the rest of the world

XXII.G.1

Depth 2

The Middle East is not a distinctive geographic zone or a continent; it is a region defined primarily by European and American observers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

XXII.G.2

Depth 2

Large proportion of the world’s proven oil reserves are in the Middle East—principally in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait.

XXII.H.1

Depth 2

Prior to World War I, the Ottoman Empire controlled the land of Palestine; Palestine had a large Arab population.

XXII.H.2

Depth 2

European anti-Semitism and a desire for self-determination led some Jews to seek a national homeland.

XXII.H.3

Depth 2

Great Britain received a mandate to rule Palestine; in 1917, during the First World War, the British issued the Balfour Declaration, which officially supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

XXII.H.4

Depth 2

Many Jewish people fled to Palestine to escape persecution by the Nazis and their allies before and during World War II; Jewish population in Palestine grew to about six hundred thousand by 1945; Arabs numbered around a million; violence broke out between the two groups—and both sides attacked the British

XXII.H.5

Depth 2

After World War II, British give up mandate in Palestine

XXII.H.6

Depth 2

The UN created two states, one Jewish and one Arab, in 1947; the Jewish state declared its independence as Israel in 1948.

XXII.H.7

Depth 2

After the signing of the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, armies from neighboring Arab countries of Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon launched a war against Israel; Israelis also seized land from Palestinians; fighting lasted for ten months; when conflict ended, Israel had expanded its territory beyond the land that had been designated for the Jewish state; many people had been displaced

XXII.H.8

Depth 2

The division of Palestine set up a long-running conflict between the Jewish state and the Arab population that is still ongoing, both within Israel and in surrounding countries.

XXII.H.9

Depth 2

One trigger for violence is the status of Jerusalem; as part of the division, the holy city of Jerusalem was divided in half; Jews and Muslims both consider Jerusalem to be among the holiest cities in the world

XXII.H.10

Depth 2

After the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the war that immediately followed, approximately 750,000 Palestinians fled the land they considered their home; Palestinians spread across different neighboring countries; were not organized politically; in 1964, Palestinian leaders formed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO);Yasser Arafat became the leader of the PLO in 1969

XXII.H.11

Depth 2

In 1967, Israel fought the Six-Day War against Syria and Egypt.

XXII.H.12

Depth 2

In 1973, Egypt launched a surprise attack on Israel during Yom Kippur.

XXII.H.13

Depth 2

In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty to end the off-and-on war that had been fought for thirty years; Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt; Egypt agreed that Israel had the right to exist

XXII.H.14

Depth 2

From 1987 to 1991, Palestinians participated in a series of protests and riots called the first intifada to protest the occupation of Gaza and the West Bank; led to a peace agreement called the Oslo Accords, which established the Palestinian National Authority as the governing body of parts of Gaza and the West Bank

XXII.H.15

Depth 2

Peace process halted during the second intifada—2000 to 2005; Israel withdrew from Gaza toward the end of 2005

XXII.I.1

Depth 2

Egyptian revolution, started in 1919, led to the end of British rule in Egypt in 1922.

XXII.I.2

Depth 2

British and the French refused to give up control of the Suez Canal; caused tension over thirty year period; led to second revolution in 1952

XXII.I.3

Depth 2

Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–70) orchestrated the overthrow of King Farouk.

XXII.I.4

Depth 2

In 1956, Nasser’s government took control of the Suez Canal.

XXII.I.5

Depth 2

Britain, France, and Israel invade Egypt to seize back control of the canal in October, 1956; eventual withdrawal of forces due to threat of sanctions

XXII.I.6

Depth 2

Nasser died in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar al-Sadat; he signed Camp David Accords with Israel in 1979; assassinated in 1981

XXII.I.7

Depth 2

Hosni Mubarak ruled Egypt from 1981 until 2021; removed from office during Arab Spring

XXII.J.1

Depth 2

In 1941, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became the shah, or king, of Iran; favored having strong ties with Great Britain and the United States

XXII.J.2

Depth 2

Mohammad Mosaddegh disagreed with shah; wanted Iran’s oil wealth to be used to fund development programs to benefit ordinary Iranians; Mosaddegh built political support for a program to nationalize Iran’s oil company

XXII.J.3

Depth 2

In 1951, Mosaddegh’s oil nationalization law passed; the shah made him the country’s premier.

XXII.J.4

Depth 2

In 1953, the United States and Great Britain orchestrated a coup, overthrew Mosaddegh and returned the shah to total control of Iran; Iranian oil profits renegotiated; shah brutal ruler; secret police

XXII.J.5

Depth 2

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a fundamentalist, advocated the overthrow of the shah; wanted to transform Iran into an Islamic state; shah removed Ayatollah from the country

XXII.J.6

Depth 2

In mid-1970s, Islamic leaders grew angrier with the rule of the shah; more members of the public support Ayatollah Khomeini

XXII.J.7

Depth 2

In September, 1978, shah ordered security forces to fire into a crowd of demonstrators; hundreds killed, thousands wounded; riots broke out two months later; Khomeini called for the overthrow of the shah

XXII.J.8

Depth 2

In December, 1978, the governing regime fell; the shah fled the country.

XXII.J.9

Depth 2

Khomeini became the leader of the new Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979; new government set up a theocracy based on religious beliefs and implemented Islamic laws

XXII.J.10

Depth 2

In late 1979, student revolutionaries stormed the United States embassy in Tehran; took more than fifty American hostages; were held for 444 days before their release

XXII.K.1

Depth 2

Iraq ruled from 1979 to 2003 by Saddam Hussein (1937–2006); Iraq’s ruling party was secular

XXII.K.2

Depth 2

Iraq and Iran hostile to each other throughout the 1970s

XXII.K.3

Depth 2

In 1980, Saddam Hussein ordered an invasion of Iran; war lasted until 1988

XXII.K.4

Depth 2

In 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed the neighboring country of Kuwait to claim its oil fields; United States–led coalition of international forces repelled Hussein’s forces from Kuwait in the 1991 Persian Gulf War.

XXII.K.5

Depth 2

On September 11, 2001, terrorists belonging to the Islamic fundamentalist group al-Qaeda launched attack on the United States; hijacked and flew planes into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania

XXII.K.6

Depth 2

United States responded by launching a war against the Taliban, the de facto government of Afghanistan, which had allowed al-Qaeda to use the country as its headquarters.

XXII.K.7

Depth 2

The United States removed the Taliban from power; set up new government friendly to its interests

XXII.K.8

Depth 2

Concurrently, the United States invaded Iraq in 2003 based on claims that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction.

XXII.K.9

Depth 2

Hussein forced from power, tried for war crimes, and eventually executed; Hussein’s removal left Iraq without a strong leader; different factions of Shiites and Sunnis violently vied for power

XXII.K.10

Depth 2

U.S. troops left Iraq in 2011; weapons of mass destruction never found

XXII.K.11

Depth 2

In 2011, U.S. soldiers in Pakistan found Osama bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader responsible for the September 11 attacks, and killed him.

XXII.K.12

Depth 2

The war in Afghanistan continued until 2021, when the United States and Great Britain withdrew troops; the Taliban quickly returned to power.

XXIII.A.1

Depth 2

North America

XXIII.A.2

Depth 2

Central America

XXIII.A.3

Depth 2

South America

XXIII.A.4

Depth 2

United States

XXIII.A.5

Depth 2

Mexico

XXIII.A.6

Depth 2

Guatemala

XXIII.A.7

Depth 2

Panama

XXIII.A.8

Depth 2

Nicaragua

XXIII.A.9

Depth 2

El Salvador

XXIII.A.10

Depth 2

Brazil

XXIII.A.11

Depth 2

Argentina (Falkland Islands/ Malvinas Islands)

XXIII.A.12

Depth 2

Columbia

XXIII.A.13

Depth 2

Chile

XXIII.A.14

Depth 2

Belize

XXIII.A.15

Depth 2

Cuba

XXIII.A.16

Depth 2

Haiti

XXIII.A.17

Depth 2

Dominican Republic

XXIII.A.18

Depth 2

Caribbean

Depth 2

In the second half of the twentieth century, many Latin American nations began to transition from military dictatorships to democracies. Populist leaders tapped into the energy of the working classes and took control in many places. The United States continued its involvement in Latin America as the Cold War accelerated. In the 1970s, military dictatorships took control of many Latin American countries, but democracy eventually returned in most places. The United States inserted itself into Central American and Caribbean commerce and governance in the early twentieth century. It intervened more than thirty times before 1933, at which point President Franklin Roosevelt adopted the Good Neighbor Policy, which called for an end to armed U.S. intervention in Latin America.

XXIII.B.1

Depth 2

Mexican Revolution veteran Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920) became the first president of the new Mexican republic in 1917; oversaw rewriting of Mexican constitution

XXIII.B.2

Depth 2

Carranza eventually succeeded by Lázaro Cárdenas (1895–1970) in 1934; Cárdenas was first Mexican president to truly implement the economic and social reforms outlined in the 1917 constitution

XXIII.B.3

Depth 2

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) took over as the nation’s dominant political force after Cárdenas’s presidency ended in 1940.

XXIII.B.4

Depth 2

PRI eventually taken down by charges of corruption; devastating 1985 earthquake in Mexico City revealed political leaders’ corruption

XXIII.B.5

Depth 2

In 2000, Vicente Fox, businessman and right-wing populist, won the presidency as a member of the National Action Party (PAN)

XXIII.B.6

Depth 2

Today, Mexico is an important economic and political player in Latin America; booming industry and service sectors; mineral resources

XXIII.C.1

Depth 2

First peaceful transition of power in Guatemala in 1950; Jacobo Arbenz replaced Juan José Arévalo as president; embraced idea of agrarian reform; in 1952, passed reform to redistribute uncultivated land from wealthy estates to rural workers

XXIII.C.2

Depth 2

Concept of land reform alarmed U.S. government; believed communists would use the policy to organize the population; instructed CIA to undermine and destabilize the Guatemalan government; authorized the U.S. Air Force to provide arms to Guatemalan military officer Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas (1914–57)

XXIII.C.3

Depth 2

Castillo Armas staged military coup against the democratically elected Arbenz in 1954; claimed the presidency; returned all confiscated land to the United Fruit Company; thwarted farmworkers’ attempts to unionize; assassinated in 1957

XXIII.C.4

Depth 2

Military governments ruled Guatemala for several decades; 1996 peace agreement restored the nation’s representative government

XXIII.C.5

Depth 2

Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–67), Argentine physician working in Guatemala, took up arms against the U.S.-backed Guatemalan military to fight for Arbenz; as well as Raúl Castro (b. 1931) and Fidel Castro (1926–2016); Guevara one of the leaders of the 1959 Cuban Revolution

XXIII.D.1

Depth 2

Recognized as independent nation by the United States in 1903 after it allowed joint control of the Canal Zone

XXIII.D.2

Depth 2

In 1977, U.S. president Jimmy Carter signed a treaty that promised to return the Canal Zone to Panama on December 31, 1999.

XXIII.D.3

Depth 2

In 1989, during the presidency of George H. W. Bush, the United States helped overthrow Panamanian military dictator Manuel Noriega.

XXIII.E.1

Depth 2

Nicaragua subject to United States intervention many times during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

XXIII.E.2

Depth 2

Between 1934 and 1979, Somoza dynasty ruled Nicaragua; known for violence against enemies and for corruption

XXIII.E.3

Depth 2

In 1979, rebel group called the Sandinistas carried out a successful socialist revolution against the Somoza regime

XXIII.E.4

Depth 2

Sandinistas confiscated and redistributed land owned by the Somoza family.

XXIII.E.5

Depth 2

President Ronald Reagan and his administration helped fund and train a counterrevolutionary military force called the Contras to defeat the Sandinistas.

XXIII.E.6

Depth 2

In the Nicaraguan presidential election of 1984, Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega (b. 1945) won 67 percent of vote; following year, the United States imposed a five-year trade embargo

XXIII.E.7

Depth 2

U.S. Congress passed bills that called for an end to Contra funding; Reagan administration continued to secretly support the counterrevolutionaries.

XXIII.E.8

Depth 2

In 1986, revealed that the U.S. National Security Council had illegally sold weapons to Iran at inflated prices; used profits to fund the Contras; the Iran-Contra Affair

XXIII.E.9

Depth 2

In 1990, Nicaraguans elected Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (b. 1929).

XXIII.E.10

Depth 2

Daniel Ortega re-elected in 2006; implementation of conservative laws, support for extreme right-wing ideology, and suppression of the press

XXIII.F.1

Depth 2

El Salvador’s economy largely agricultural in the early twentieth century; rural workers exploited by influential landowners; Salvadorian students protested; Catholic priests worked to improve lives of rural population

XXIII.F.2

Depth 2

Catholic Church viewed as enemy of the ruling elite, the armed forces, and the landowning oligarchy

XXIII.F.3

Depth 2

In 1960s, guerrilla and anti-government forces in El Salvador drew support from the rural population; success of Sandinistas inspired Salvadorans to rise against oppressive government; between 1979 and 1985, rebel group called Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) almost overthrew Nicaragua’s ruling elite

XXIII.F.4

Depth 2

Reagan administration supported the Salvadoran military in its fight against the FMLN guerrillas; between 1980 and 1992, the United States sent El Salvador’s government more than $4 billion in economic and military aid

XXIII.F.5

Depth 2

Assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero in 1980 and murder of eight people, including six Catholic priests, in 1989, prompted international pressure

XXIII.F.6

Depth 2

United Nations brokered a peace agreement between the Salvadoran government and the FMLN in 1992

XXIII.G.1

Depth 2

Brazilian economy impacted by the global depression of 1930s

XXIII.G.2

Depth 2

Getúlio Vargas (1882–1954), Brazilian politician, represented the reform party in the 1930 presidential election; he lost; led armed revolution that overthrew Brazil’s oligarchic government

XXIII.G.3

Depth 2

Vargas centralized power; replaced corrupt coffee barons who ruled southern part of the nation

XXIII.G.4

Depth 2

In 1937, with help of the Brazilian military, he assumed dictatorial powers; rewrote the country’s constitution; period known as the New State

XXIII.G.5

Depth 2

Inspired by Mussolini’s rule in Italy, Vargas imposed an authoritarian regime; prohibited political parties that opposed his government; made improvements to educational system; enacted social security laws; established a minimum wage; gave women the right to vote

XXIII.G.6

Depth 2

Vargas overthrown in 1945 military coup; still maintained widespread public support; was elected president of Brazil in 1951; until his death in 1954, led in a more democratic manner; this approach followed by subsequent presidents; in 1964, military took control of the country

XXIII.H.1

Depth 2

Populist Juan Domingo Perón (1895–1974), Argentine military officer, rose to power during 1943 government coup; recognized workers as important political force; seen as a threat, Domingo Perón arrested and jailed; supporters protested; Perón freed on October 17, 1945; known in Argentina as Loyalty Day; elected president in 1946

XXIII.H.2

Depth 2

Perón rewrote Argentina’s constitution in 1949; bill of rights; free speech restricted; authoritarian regime; prohibited opposing parties

XXIII.H.3

Depth 2

Eva “Evita” Duarte de Perón (1919–52), wife of Juan Perón, powerful female leader in Latin America; helped establish national vote for women in 1947

XXIII.H.4

Depth 2

Military overthrew Peron in 1955; attempted to “de-Perónize” society; prohibited any politician belonging to the Peronist party from holding office; Perón exiled to Spain

XXIII.H.5

Depth 2

Political tensions of Cold War, and economic turmoil of 1970s fragmented Argentine society; Peron returned to Argentina; reelected president in 1973; died in office

XXIII.I.1

Depth 2

Colombia experienced waves of violence after assassination of popular leftist politician and presidential hopeful Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in 1948; period known as La Violencia, or the Era of Violence

XXIII.I.2

Depth 2

Laureano Gómez (1889–1965), conservative politician, accused of being involved in Gaitán’s assassination, elected president of Colombia in 1950; censored the press, restricted courts, persecuted Protestants; Gómez overthrown by Colombian military in 1953

XXIII.I.3

Depth 2

Gómez replaced by General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1900–75); corrupt authoritarian; his presidency even more restrictive than Gómez’s

XXIII.I.4

Depth 2

Guerrilla insurgent groups faded away in most of Latin America after the Cold War; not in Columbia; Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and other groups waged war in countryside

XXIII.I.5

Depth 2

Álvaro Uribe (b. 1952) elected president of Colombia in 2002; waged war against rebel groups; more than two hundred thousand Colombians died; millions displaced; Uribe reelected and served until 2010

XXIII.J.1

Depth 2

Democratic governments of several South American countries ruthlessly overthrown in the 1960s and 1970s; often political parties banned, legislatures shut down, and press censored; lawmaking by decree

XXIII.J.2

Depth 2

Dictators reversed populist policies that benefited workers; banned unions, strikes, and other public demonstrations; anti-communist

XXIII.J.3

Depth 2

Regimes set up special security forces to kidnap and kill anyone suspected of leftist or anti-government activities

XXIII.J.4

Depth 2

In Argentina, historians estimate up to thirty thousand people were “disappeared,” or kidnapped.

XXIII.J.5

Depth 2

United States worked to prevent spread of communist ideology across Latin America; between 1955 and 1976, Argentina received almost $400 million in military support from the United States; in Chile, the U.S. Navy and CIA provided military support for September 11, 1973, coup that replaced socialist president Salvador Allende (1908–73) with dictator Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006)

XXIII.J.6

Depth 2

Pinochet embraced capitalism; rewrote the nation’s constitution; universities put under control of military men, who controlled course curricula and hiring and firing of faculty; by 1980, Chile the most privatized and unregulated economy in the world

XXIII.J.7

Depth 2

Pinochet lost the election in 1988; maintained role as head of the armed forces until 1998

XXIII.J.8

Depth 2

Falkland Islands, also called Malvinas Islands; conflict in 1982 between Argentina and Britain

XXIII.J.9

Depth 2

Raúl Alfonsín (1927–2009) democratically elected president of Argentina in 1983; created the National Commission on the Disappeared; Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo

XXIII.J.10

Depth 2

In Brazil, military regime began slow transition to democracy in the 1970s during period known as the abertura, or opening

XXIII.J.11

Depth 2

Across Latin America, Catholic Church turned against the military due to many human rights abuses

XXIII.J.12

Depth 2

Aftermath of dictatorships resulted in many challenges for South American countries

XXIII.K.1

Depth 2

Cuban Revolution in 1959 highlighted Cold War tensions

XXIII.K.2

Depth 2

Cuban alliance with the Soviet Union during the Cold War; Cuba experienced four hundred years of Spanish colonialism, followed by U.S. involvement in its affairs

XXIII.K.3

Depth 2

In 1903, the United States passed the Platt Amendment; stated that the U.S. government had political authority over Cuba; authority lasted until 1934; ended by the Good Neighbor Policy; next quarter century, Cuba led by rulers friendly to American interests

XXIII.K.4

Depth 2

In 1933, Fulgencio Batista (1901–73) led coup that overthrew the government; maintained influence over next presidents for a period

XXIII.K.5

Depth 2

In 1940, Batista elected president; increasingly bound to the United States; after serving full term, moved to the United States; Batista returned to Cuba in 1952; staged successful coup with the support of Cuban military; worked with leaders of organized crime in the United States to promote tourism

XXIII.K.6

Depth 2

Middle-class law student, Fidel Castro, leading opponent of Batista; on July 26, 1953, Castro led failed insurrection in eastern Cuba; many Cubans killed; Fidel and his brother Raúl arrested; upon their release, in 1955, go into exile in Mexico; meet Ernesto “Che” Guevara; organize revolutionary group, the 26th of July Movement Castros, Guevara, and seventy-nine other revolutionaries sailed to Cuba from Mexico in 1956; many killed; three leaders and some revolutionaries survive; lived in the Sierra Maestra mountains and attracted more members; waged a guerilla battle against Batista’s forces; on January 1, 1959, the rebels entered Cuban capital, Havana

XXIII.K.7

Depth 2

Fidel Castro pushed back against U.S. economic dominance; in 1960, Castro made deal to sell Cuban sugar to Soviet Union; U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower’s administration retaliated; ended diplomatic relations with Castro; U.S. organize Cuban dissidents to return to Cuba; attempt to overthrow Castro—Bay of Pigs, April 17, 1961; attempt fails; U.S. operation Mongoose also fails

XXIII.K.8

Depth 2

Castro declares revolution socialist

XXIII.K.9

Depth 2

In October 1962, U.S. spy planes take satellite photos of installation of Soviet nuclear warheads in Cuba

XXIII.K.10

Depth 2

Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) had installed weapons in Cuba in response to U.S. weapons placed in Turkey

XXIII.K.11

Depth 2

President Kennedy demands withdrawal of Soviet nuclear warheads; Cuban missile crisis; Soviet Union withdraws missiles in exchange for U.S. assurance not to invade Cuba; thousands of Cubans migrate to the United States; Mariel boatlift, 1980

XXIII.K.12

Depth 2

Cuba entered period of economic hardship in 1990s; U.S. maintains economic embargo against Cuba

XXIII.K.13

Depth 2

Fidel Castro died in 2016; Raúl Castro becomes president

XXIII.L.1

Depth 2

United States Marines stationed in Haiti from 1915 until 1934

XXIII.L.2

Depth 2

In 1957, United States supported François “Papa Doc” Duvalier (1907–71) as Haiti’s president; supportive of U.S.; corruption; exploitation of Haitian resources; after his death, his son, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier (1951–2014) installed in office; ousted in 1986

XXIII.L.3

Depth 2

In 1965, the United States sent troops to the Dominican Republic to end a civil war and install an authoritarian government friendly to its interests.

XXIV.A.1

Depth 2

Map of the World

XXIV.B.1

Depth 2

Modern globalized economy is result of end of the Cold War

XXIV.B.2

Depth 2

Networks of production, distribution, trade; fast communications technology; capacity for goods to crisscross the planet; just-in-time supply chain; opportunity for ideas and culture to spread around the world; global influence of American popular culture

XXIV.B.3

Depth 2

World Trade Organization (WTO) formed in 1995 to set standards for global trade and exchange

XXIV.B.4

Depth 2

Rise of China as industrial power

XXIV.B.5

Depth 2

China became world’s leading exporter of textiles, furniture, toys

XXIV.B.6

Depth 2

China’s industrial expansion shifted focus to infrastructure in 1999; high-speed rail, highways, building materials, ships

XXIV.B.7

Depth 2

China admitted into the WTO in 2001

XXIV.B.8

Depth 2

Growing use of offshore, or foreign, labor; business leaders investing in developing countries such as India and China; workers paid less than workers in the United States and Europe

XXIV.B.9

Depth 2

Developing countries had fewer safety and environmental regulations, favorable tax rates

XXIV.B.10

Depth 2

Type of labor performed overseas changed; developing nations had improved systems of education; produced greater numbers of skilled workers and university graduates; caused increase in the amount of skilled labor that was outsourced to the developing world

XXIV.B.11

Depth 2

Internet communications technology connects billions of people; satellites; mobile phones

XXIV.B.12

Depth 2

Criticism of globalization; blamed for weakening national economic strength

XXIV.B.13

Depth 2

Global financial crisis 2007-2009

XXIV.B.14

Depth 2

Global trade and travel contribute to spread of infectious diseases; COVID-19; vaccinations developed by international teams of scientists

XXIV.C.1

Depth 2

Estimated 7.7 billion people lived on Earth in 2019; increase of 1 billion people since 2007 and 2 billion since 1994; growth slowing; birth rate decreasing

XXIV.C.2

Depth 2

United Nations predicts world’s population will reach a peak of about 11 billion people by 2100

XXIV.C.3

Depth 2

Life expectancy increasing; aging population trends

XXIV.D.1

Depth 2

Larger global population and interconnected world economy have contributed to increased human migration

XXIV.D.2

Depth 2

Migration factors: economic, conflicts, wars, persecution, disasters in home countries; United Nations estimated in 2021, 26.6 million people in the world were refugees seeking safety from conflicts and disasters; increase in anti-immigrant rhetoric

XXIV.E.1

Depth 2

Major lingering issue from the end of the Cold War—the handling of the world’s nuclear weapons

XXIV.E.2

Depth 2

Conflicts in former Russian regions of Chechnya, Georgia, Crimea, Ukraine

XXIV.E.3

Depth 2

Following global financial crisis of 2007–9, wave of pro-democracy protests in North Africa and Southwest Asia in 2010–11; protests triggered by economic crises and demands for political reform; in Tunisia, President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced to resign in 2011; in Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak forced to resign in 2011; uprisings in Syria, Libya, and Yemen (Arab Spring)

XXIV.E.4

Depth 2

Arab Spring largely unable to replace authoritarian leaders with democratic governments

XXIV.E.5

Depth 2

In Syria, under government of Bashar al-Assad, rebel uprising turned into extended civil war; more than seven million Syrians have fled the country

XXIV.E.6

Depth 2

In Libya, dictator Muammar al-Qaddafi removed from power after European and U.S. forces gave military aid to Libyan rebels

XXIV.E.7

Depth 2

The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) emerged between 2011 and 2014; at the height of its power, the Islamic State controlled 30 percent of Syria and 40 percent of Iraq

XXIV.F.1

Depth 2

Changes in weather patterns; extremes; changing levels of individual gases impacts individual functions and capabilities of the atmosphere; carbon dioxide and methane

XXIV.F.2

Depth 2

Deforestation in world’s rain forests (Amazon)

XXIV.F.3

Depth 2

Global initiatives have attempted to tackle issue by lowering emissions; making plans to transition to renewable, clean energy sources

XXIV.F.4

Depth 2

Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997, put into effect in 2005, committed industrialized nations to cut greenhouse gas emissions; requested developing nations also do so

XXIV.F.5

Depth 2

Paris Agreement, signed in 2015, put into effect in 2016, commits all parties to reduction of emissions

XXIV.G.1

Depth 2

Revived interest in space exploration

XXIV.G.2

Depth 2

Robotic explorer rover, Curiosity, landed on Mars in 2012; began to transmit images and data from the red planet’s surface back to Earth; Curiosity mission followed by others; Perseverance, landed on Mars in 2021

XXIV.G.3

Depth 2

China showing increased interest in its space program; in 2020, Chang’e-5 lander touched down on the moon’s surface

XXIV.G.4

Depth 2

Medical breakthroughs in 21st Century helping to eradicate disease and illness around the world

VII.D.4.1

Depth 3

Defeats Pompey

VII.D.4.2

Depth 3

Pompey in Egypt

VII.D.4.3

Depth 3

Caesar in Egypt

VII.D.4.4

Depth 3

Caesar becomes Dictator for life in 44 BCE

VII.D.4.5

Depth 3

Cleopatra of Egypt

VII.D.4.6

Depth 3

Ides of March, Caesar assassinated in the Senate, Brutus, Cassius

VII.D.4.7

Depth 3

Marcus Antonius and Octavian defeat Brutus and Cassius

VII.D.4.8

Depth 3

Octavian becomes Augustus Caesar; imperator; period of peace and stability (Pax Romana) with integration of non-Romans into Roman society; reorganization of tax system

VII.D.4.9

Depth 3

Virgil and the Aeneid

VII.D.4.10

Depth 3

Ovid and Metamorphoses

VII.D.4.11

Depth 3

Expansion of empire, challenges the old Republican form of government

VII.D.4.12

Depth 3

Management and defense challenges of vast Roman empire; millions of inhabitants

VII.D.4.13

Depth 3

Emperor Diocletian (284 to 305 CE) split empire into two halves, each with its own emperor; western half ruled from Rome, eastern half ruled from Asia Minor

VII.D.4.14

Depth 3

Corruption and conflict over political power

VII.D.4.15

Depth 3

Constantine rises to power in 312 CE; moves capital to Byzantium

VII.D.4.16

Depth 3

Constantine adopts Christianity; makes Christianity Rome’s official religion, ending persecution of Christians

VII.D.4.17

Depth 3

Weakened by outside attacks, particularly Germanic tribes