AP US Government & Politics (2023)

Apply political concepts and processes to scenarios in context.

Apply Supreme Court decisions.

Analyze and interpret quantitative data represented in tables, charts, graphs, maps, and infographics. 

Read, analyze, and interpret foundational documents and other text-based and visual sources.

Develop an argument in essay format.

Foundations of American Democracy

Interactions Among Branches of Government

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

Political Participation

Describe political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Explain political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Compare political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Describe political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors illustrated in different scenarios in context.

Explain how political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors apply to different scenarios in context.

Describe the facts, issue, holding, reasoning, decision, and majority opinion of required Supreme Court cases.

Explain how a required Supreme Court case relates to a foundational document or to other primary or secondary sources.

Explain how the facts, issue, holding, reasoning, decision, and majority opinion of a required Supreme Court case compare to a non-required Supreme Court case.

Explain how a required Supreme Court case relates to a relevant political principle, institution, process, policy, or behavior.

Describe the data presented.

Describe patterns and trends in data.

Explain patterns and trends in data to draw conclusions.

Explain what the data implies or illustrates about political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Explain possible limitations of the data provided.

Explain possible limitations of the visual representation of the data provided.

Describe the argument, perspective, evidence, and reasoning presented in the source.

Explain how the argument or perspective in the source relates to political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Explain how the implications of the argument or perspective in the source may affect political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Explain how the visual elements of the source (a cartoon, map, or infographic) illustrate or relate to political principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors.

Articulate a defensible claim/thesis. 

Support an argument or claim/ thesis using relevant evidence.

Use reasoning to organize and analyze evidence, explaining its significance to justify an argument or claim/thesis.

Respond to opposing or alternate perspectives with rebuttal or refutation.

Ideals of Democracy

Types of Democracy

Government Power and Individual Rights

Challenges of the Articles of Confederation

Ratification of the U.S. Constitution

Principles of American Government

Relationship Between the States and National Government

Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism

Federalism in Action

Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives

Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress

Congressional Behavior

Roles and Powers of the President 

Checks on the Presidency

Expansion of Presidential Power

Presidential Communication 

The Judicial Branch

The Role of the Judicial Branch

The Court in Action

Checks on the Judicial Branch 

The Bureaucracy

Discretionary and Rulemaking Authority

Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable

Policy and the Branches of Government

The Bill of Rights 

First Amendment: Freedom of Religion

First Amendment: Freedom of Speech

First Amendment: Freedom of the Press

Second Amendment: Right to Bear Arms

Amendments: Balancing Individual Freedom with Public Order and Safety

Selective Incorporation

Amendments: Due Process and the Rights of the Accused

Amendments: Due Process and the Right to Privacy

Social Movements and Equal Protection

Government Responses to Social Movements

Balancing Minority and Majority Rights

Affirmative Action 

American Attitudes About Government and Politics

Political Socialization

Changes in Ideology

Influence of Political Events on Ideology

Measuring Public Opinion 

Evaluating Public Opinion Data

Ideologies of Political Parties

Ideology and Policymaking 

Ideology and Economic Policy

Ideology and Social Policy

Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior

Voter Turnout

Political Parties

How and Why Political Parties Change and Adapt

Third-Party Politics 

Interest Groups Influencing Policymaking

Groups Influencing Policy Outcomes

Electing a President

Congressional Elections

Modern Campaigns

Campaign Finance

The Media 

Changing Media

Explain how democratic ideals are reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

Explain how models of representative democracy are visible in major institutions, policies, events, or debates in the U.S.

Explain Federalist and AntiFederalist views on central government and democracy.

Explain the relationship between key provisions of the Articles of Confederation, and the debate over granting the federal government greater power formerly reserved to the states.

Explain the impact of political negotiation and compromise at the Constitutional Convention on the development of the constitutional system.

Explain the constitutional principles of separation of powers and checks and balances.

Explain the effects of separation of powers and checks and balances for the U.S. political system.

Explain how the constitutional allocation of power between the national and state governments affects society.

Explain how the balance of power between national and state governments has changed over time based on interpretations of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Explain how the distribution of powers between national and state governments impacts policymaking.

Describe the different structures, powers, and functions of each house of Congress.

Explain how the structure, powers, and functions of both houses of Congress affect the policymaking process.

Explain how congressional behavior is influenced by election processes, partisanship, and divided government.

Explain how the president can implement a policy agenda.

Explain how the president’s agenda can create tension and frequent confrontations with Congress.

Explain how presidents have interpreted and justified their use of formal and informal powers.

Explain how communication technology has changed the president’s relationship with the national constituency and the other branches.

Explain the principle of judicial review and how it checks the power of other branches.

Explain the role of legal precedent in judicial decision making.

Explain how life tenure can lead to debate about the Supreme Court’s power.

Explain how the exercise of judicial review can lead to debate about the Supreme Court’s power.

Explain how other branches in the government can limit the Supreme Court’s power.

Explain how the bureaucracy carries out the responsibilities of the federal government.

Explain how the federal bureaucracy uses delegated discretionary authority for rulemaking and implementation.

Explain how Congress uses its oversight power in its relationship with the executive branch.

Explain how the president ensures that executive branch agencies and departments carry out their responsibilities in concert with the goals of the administration. 

Explain the extent to which governmental branches can hold the bureaucracy accountable given the competing interests of Congress, the president, and the federal courts. 

Explain how the distribution of powers among the three branches of government impacts policymaking.

Explain how the U.S. Constitution protects individual liberties and rights.

Describe the rights protected in the Bill of Rights.

Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to religious liberty.

Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to free speech.

Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty. 

Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Second Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty.

Explain how the Supreme Court has attempted to balance claims of individual freedom with laws and enforcement procedures that promote public order and safety.

Explain the implications of the doctrine of selective incorporation.

Explain the extent to which the government is limited by procedural due process from infringing upon individual rights. 

Explain the extent to which the government is limited by substantive due process from infringing upon individual rights.

Explain how constitutional provisions have supported and motivated social movements.

Explain how the government has responded to social movements.

Explain how the Court has at times allowed the restriction of the civil rights of minority groups and at other times has protected those rights.

Describe Supreme Court debates about affirmative action policies.

Explain the relationship between core beliefs of U.S. citizens and attitudes about the role of government.

Explain how cultural factors influence political socialization.

Explain how social factors impact political ideology.

Explain how major political events influence political ideology.

Describe the elements of a scientific poll.

Explain the quality and credibility of claims based on public opinion data.

Explain how ideologies of the two major parties shape policy debates.

Explain how U.S. political culture (e.g., democratic ideals, principles, and core values) influences the formation, goals, and implementation of public policy over time.

Explain how different political ideologies affect the role of government in regulating the marketplace.

Explain how fiscal and monetary policy actions influence economic conditions.

Explain how political ideologies vary on the role of the government in addressing social issues.

Explain how different ideologies affect policy on social issues.

Describe the voting rights protections in the Constitution and in legislation.

Describe different models of voting behavior. 

Explain the roles that individual choice and state laws play in voter turnout in elections.

Describe linkage institutions.

Explain the function and impact of political parties on the electorate and government

Explain why and how political parties change and adapt.

Explain how structural barriers affect third-party and independent candidate success.

Explain the benefits and potential problems of interest group influence on elections and policymaking.

Explain how variation in types of interest groups and the resources interest groups possess affects their ability to influence elections and policymaking.

Explain how various political actors influence public policy outcomes.

Explain how the different processes work in a U.S. presidential election.

Explain how the Electoral College affects U.S. presidential elections.

Explain how the different processes work in U.S. congressional elections.

Explain how campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process.

Explain how the organization, finance, and strategies of national political campaigns affect the election process.

Explain the media’s role as a linkage institution. 

Explain how increasingly diverse choices of media and communication outlets influence political institutions and behavior.

The U.S. government is based on the following democratic ideals:

The ideal of limited government is ensured by the interaction of these principles:

The Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson (with help from Adams and Franklin), restates the philosophy of natural rights, and provides a foundation for popular sovereignty. The U.S. Constitution, drafted by James Madison at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia that was led by George Washington (with important contributions from Hamilton and members of the “Grand Committee”), is an example of a social contract and establishes a system of limited government. The Constitution provides the blueprint for a unique form of democratic government in the United States.

Representative democracies can take several forms including the following models:

Different aspects of the U.S. Constitution as well as the debate between Federalist No. 10 and Brutus No. 1 reflect the tension between the broad participatory model and the more filtered participation of the pluralist and elite models of representative democracy.

The three models of representative democracy continue to be reflected in contemporary institutions and political behavior.

Federalists supported ratification of the Constitution and a strong central government. Madison’s arguments in Federalist No. 10 focused on the superiority of a large republic in controlling the “mischiefs of faction,” delegating authority to elected representatives and dispersing power between the states and national government.

Anti-Federalists opposed the ratification of the Constitution and wanted more power reserved to state governments rather than a strong central government. Anti-Federalist writings, including Brutus No. 1, adhered to popular democratic theory that emphasized the benefits of a small, decentralized republic while warning of the dangers to personal liberty from a large, centralized government.

Specific incidents and legal challenges that highlighted key weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation are represented by the:

Compromises deemed necessary for ratification of the Constitution included the following:

Debates about self-government during the drafting of the Constitution necessitated the drafting of an amendment process in Article V that entailed either a two-thirds vote in both houses or a proposal from two-thirds of the state legislatures, with final ratification determined by three-fourths of the states.

The compromises necessary to secure ratification of the Constitution left some matters unresolved that continue to generate discussion and debate today.

The debate over the role of the national government, the powers of state governments, and the rights of individuals remains at the heart of present-day constitutional issues about democracy and governmental power, as represented by:

The specific and separate powers delegated to Congress, the president, and the courts allow each branch to check and balance the power of the other branches, ensuring no one branch becomes too powerful.

Federalist No. 51 explains how constitutional provisions of separation of powers and checks and balances control potential abuses by majorities.

Separation of powers and checks and balances creates multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy.

Checks and balances and separation of powers allow legal actions to be taken against public officials deemed to have abused their power. Those legal actions include the process of impeachment (the House formally charges an official with abuse of power or misconduct) and removal (if the official is convicted in a Senate impeachment trial).

Federalism is the system of government in the United States in which power is shared between the national and state governments. The exclusive and concurrent powers of the national and state governments help explain the ongoing debate over the balance of power between the two levels.

Exclusive power is held by only one level of government and includes enumerated powers that are written in the Constitution, and implied powers that are not specifically written in the Constitution but are inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Reserved powers are those not delegated or enumerated to the national government but are reserved to the states, as stated in the Tenth Amendment.

Concurrent powers are shared between both levels of government such as the power to collect taxes, the power to make and enforce laws and the power to build roads.

The distribution of power between national and state governments is demonstrated by:

The Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment give the national government the power to enforce protections for any person against the states, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of those protections.

The Commerce Clause gives the national government the power to regulate interstate commerce, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of this power.

The Necessary and Proper Clause gives Congress the power to make laws related to carrying out its enumerated powers, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of these powers.

The Supremacy Clause gives the national government and its laws general precedence over states’ laws, but Supreme Court interpretations may affect when specific actions exceed this constitutional power.

The allocation of powers between national and state governments creates multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy.

National policymaking is constrained by the sharing of concurrent powers with state governments.

Republicanism, the democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government debates and decisions by their representatives, is shown in the bicameral structure of Congress. The Senate is designed to represent states equally, while the House is designed to represent the people. 

Different membership sizes influence the formality of debate in each chamber. Debate in the House, which has 435 members, is more formal than in the Senate, with 100 members. 

Interactions in Congress are affected by the two-party system and term-length differences. One-third of the Senate is elected every two years, creating a continuous legislative body. All House members are elected every two years.

The enumerated and implied powers in the Constitution allow Congress to participate in the public policy process by:

The structures and powers of the Senate and House are different by design. This difference directly affects the legislative process.

Both chambers refer bills to committees, which conduct hearings and debate and mark up bills with revisions and additions. Leadership in committees is determined by the majority political party.

Chamber-specific rules and procedures affect the legislative process.

Congress must generate a budget that addresses both mandatory and discretionary spending. 

Pork-barrel legislation (funding for a local project in a larger appropriation bill) and logrolling (exchange of political favors among legislators, such as trading votes, to gain support for legislation) affect the legislative process in both chambers.

Congressional behavior and governing effectiveness are influenced by ideological divisions between political parties. Partisan voting (when members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation) and polarization (when political attitudes move toward ideological extremes) can lead to gridlock (a situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus). 

Gerrymandering, redistricting, and unequal representation of constituencies have been partially addressed by Supreme Court cases that opened the door for equal protection challenges to redistricting.

Elections that have led to a divided government (when one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress) can lead to more intense partisanship. This partisanship can result in members of Congress voting against presidential initiatives and appointments, especially those of a lame duck president.

Accountability to constituents in each chamber is affected by how representatives perceive their roles. 

Presidents use powers and perform functions of the office, with support from the Vice-President, Cabinet, and Executive Office of the President, to accomplish a policy agenda.

The powers of the president include both formal and informal powers.

Senate confirmation is an important check on appointment powers but there can be a potential for conflict based on who is chosen by the president for appointments, including:

Senate confirmation is an important check on appointment powers, but the president’s longest lasting influence lies in life-tenured judicial appointments.

Policy conflicts with the congressional agenda (the formal list of policies Congress is considering at any given time) can lead the president to use executive orders and directives to the bureaucracy to address the president’s own agenda items.

Federalist No. 70 offers justification for a single executive by arguing a strong executive is “essential to the protection of the country against foreign attacks, to the steady administration of the laws, to the protection of property, and to the security of liberty.”

Passage of the Twenty-Second Amendment, which established presidential term limits, demonstrates concern about the expansion of presidential power.

Different perspectives on the presidential role, ranging from a limited to a more expansive interpretation and use of power, continue to be debated in the context of contemporary events.

The impact of presidential communication has increased with advances in communication technology.

The foundation for powers of the judicial branch and the argument for how its independence checks the power of other branches is set forth in the following documents, respectively:

Stare decisis (the legal doctrine under which courts follow legal precedents when deciding cases with similar facts) plays an important role in judicial decision making.

Ideological changes in the composition of the Supreme Court due to presidential appointments have led to the Court’s establishing new or rejecting existing precedents.

Life tenure for justices allows the court to function independent of the current political climate. As a result of this independence, the Court can deliver controversial or unpopular court decisions, which in turn can lead to debate about the court’s power.

Political discussion about the Supreme Court’s power is illustrated by the ongoing debate over differing interpretations of judicial review. 

Restrictions on the Supreme Court are represented by:

The federal bureaucracy is composed of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement policy by:

The civil service primarily uses a merit system that prioritizes hiring and promotion based on professionalism, specialization, and neutrality, as opposed to political patronage, whereby bureaucratic jobs are politically appointed.

The federal bureaucracy uses discretionary power as delegated by Congress to interpret and implement policies. Through their rulemaking authority, federal bureaucratic agencies utilize their discretion to create and enforce regulations. Bureaucratic agencies include:

Congressional oversight of the bureaucracy to ensure that legislation is implemented as intended includes: 

As a means to curtail the use of presidential power, congressional oversight serves as a check of executive authorization.

Presidential ideology, authority, and influence affect how executive branch agencies carry out the goals of the administration.

Compliance monitoring ensures that funds are being used properly and regulations are being followed. Compliance monitoring can pose a challenge to policy implementation.

Formal and informal powers of Congress, the president, and the courts over the bureaucracy are used to maintain its accountability.

National policymaking is constrained by the sharing of powers between the three branches.

The allocation of powers among the three branches of government creates multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy.

The U.S. Constitution includes a Bill of Rights specifically designed to protect individual liberties and rights.

Civil liberties are constitutionally established guarantees and freedoms that protect citizens, opinions, and property against arbitrary government interference.

The application of the Bill of Rights is continuously interpreted by the courts.

The Bill of Rights consists of the first ten Amendments to the Constitution, which enumerate the liberties and rights of individuals.

The interpretation and application of the First Amendment’s establishment and free exercise clauses reflect an ongoing tension between government power to make law and an individual’s right to religious freedom.

The Supreme Court has held that speech, including symbolic speech (nonverbal action that communicates an idea or belief), is protected by the First Amendment.

Efforts to balance social order and individual freedom are reflected in interpretations of the First Amendment that limit speech, including:

The Supreme Court bolstered the freedom of the press, affirming support for a heavy presumption against prior restraint even in cases involving national security.  

The Supreme Court’s decisions on the Second Amendment rest upon its constitutional interpretation of the right to bear arms.

Court decisions defining cruel and unusual punishment involve interpretation of the Eighth Amendment and its application to death penalty statutes.

The debate about the Second and Fourth Amendments involves concerns about public safety and whether or not the government regulation of firearms or collection of digital metadata promotes or interferes with public safety and individual rights.

The doctrine of selective incorporation has imposed limitations on state regulation of civil liberties by extending select protections of the Bill of Rights to the states through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments include clauses which state that the government may not infringe on a person’s right to life, liberty, or property without due process of law. The due process clause in the Fifth Amendment applies to the national government and the due process clause in the Fourteenth Amendment applies to states. Some government interests may justify the restriction of individual rights; for example, speech can be limited when it is shown to present a danger to public safety.  

Procedural due process requires that government officials use methods that are not arbitrary when making and carrying out decisions affecting constitutionally protected rights. These procedural due process protections are reinforced by key protections enshrined in other provisions of the Bill of Rights and key legal doctrines established by the Supreme Court. For example, the Miranda rule requires accused persons to be informed of some procedural protections found in the Fifth and Sixth Amendments prior to interrogation. However, these procedural protections are not absolute. A public safety exception has been sanctioned by the Court that allows unwarned interrogation to stand as direct evidence in court.

Procedural rights of the accused and the prohibition of unreasonable searches and seizures are intended to ensure that individual liberties are not eclipsed by the need for social order and security, including:

Procedural due process also protects the rights of the accused during a trial. The Bill of Rights guarantees the right to an attorney and protection from unreasonable searches and seizures. The exclusionary rule, as decided by the Supreme Court, stipulates that evidence illegally seized by law enforcement officers in violation of the suspect’s Fourth Amendment rights (including the right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures) cannot be used against that suspect in criminal prosecution.

Over time, the Supreme Court has recognized constitutionally protected rights that are not explicitly listed in the Bill of Rights. These unenumerated rights include the right to privacy. Justices and scholars have drawn on several arguments to defend the existence of unenumerated rights. Some argue that an unenumerated right is implied by certain amendments that assume the existence of such rights. Others argue that the Ninth Amendment, which states that individuals have protected rights beyond those listed in the first eight amendments, provides support for the existence of unenumerated rights. In a range of cases, the Supreme Court has used substantive due process to examine whether government laws and actions are arbitrary infringements of individual rights.

While a right to privacy is not explicitly named in the Constitution, the Supreme Court, in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), interpreted the due process clause to protect the right of privacy from government infringement. In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Supreme Court held that the application of substantive due process further extended the privacy right to abortion. The Supreme Court’s decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) overturned Roe v. Wade, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion, leaving decisions about the regulation of abortion to legislatures. The actions that are protected by the right to privacy and substantive due process continue to be debated.

Civil rights protect individuals from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, national origin, religion, and sex; these rights are guaranteed to all persons under the due process and equal protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution, as well as acts of Congress.

The civil rights movement, the women’s rights movement, and advocacy for LGBTQ rights are evidence of how the equal protection clause can support and motivate social movements, as represented by:

The government can respond to social movements through court rulings and/or policies.

Decisions demonstrating that minority rights have been restricted at times and protected at other times include:

Affirmative action refers to policies intended to address workplace and educational disparities related to race, ethnic origin, gender, disability, and age. Supreme Court debate has focused on whether affirmative action is protected by the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

Different interpretations of core values, including individualism (each person has the ability to shape their life and destiny through the choices they make), equality of opportunity (all people are given an equal chance to compete), free enterprise (the market determines prices, products, and services), and rule of law (every person, even those in power, must follow and is accountable to the same laws that govern all), affect the relationship between citizens and the federal government and that citizens have with each other.

Political socialization refers to the process by which individuals develop political beliefs, values, opinions, and behaviors. Family, schools, peers, media, and social environments (including civic and religious organizations) contribute to the development of an individual’s political attitudes and values through the process of political socialization.

U.S. political culture is defined by its democratic ideals, principles, and core values. As a result of globalization, U.S. political culture has both influenced and been influenced by the values of other countries.

Generational effects (experiences shared by people of a common age) and life cycle effects (experiences a person encounters during different life stages) contribute to the development of a person’s political ideology. 

Major political events can influence the development of individual political attitudes, which is an example of political socialization. Political socialization, in turn, influences political ideology.  

Public opinion data that can affect elections and policy debates is influenced by different types of scientific polls such as: 

Public opinion data that can affect elections and policy debates is influenced by polling methodology. Polling methodology is more precise when it includes:

The relationship between scientific polling and elections and policy debates is affected by the: 

The Democratic Party (D or DEM) platforms generally align more closely to liberal ideological positions, and the Republican Party (R or GOP) platforms generally align more closely to conservative ideological positions.

Because the U.S. is a democracy with a diverse society, public policies generated at any given time reflect the attitudes and beliefs of citizens who choose to participate in politics at that time.

The balancing dynamic of individual liberty and government efforts to promote stability and order has been reflected in policy debates and their outcomes over time.

 Liberal ideologies favor more governmental regulation of the marketplace, conservative ideologies favor fewer regulations, and libertarian ideologies favor little or no regulation of the marketplace beyond the protection of property rights and voluntary trade.

Fiscal policy consists of actions taken by Congress and the president to influence economic conditions and includes Keynesian and supply-side positions.

Monetary policy consists of actions taken by the Federal Reserve (the Fed) to influence interest rates which affect broader economic conditions. The Fed is an independent agency which seeks to achieve maximum employment and price stability

Liberal ideologies generally favor more national government involvement to address some social issues such as education and public health, with less responsibility for these issues left to state governments.

Conservative ideologies generally favor less national government involvement to address some social issues such as education and public health, with more responsibility for these issues left to state governments.

Libertarian ideologies generally favor little national or state government involvement except when national or state government is protecting private property or individual liberty.

Policy trends concerning the level of government involvement in social issues reflect the success of conservative or liberal perspectives in political parties.

Expansion of opportunities for political participation are found in the legal protections of the Amendments to the Constitution.

Various political models explain differences in voting behavior.

Structural barriers (such as polling hours, availability of absentee ballots, etc.), political efficacy (the belief that an individual’s participation in the political process will make a difference), and demographics can influence differences in voter turnout in the U.S. 

The following can influence voter turnout:

Demographic characteristics and political efficacy or engagement are used to predict the likelihood of whether an individual will vote.

Factors influencing voter choice include: 

Linkage institutions are channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers:

The functions and impact of political parties on the electorate and government are represented by:

Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns where the public focus is on the characteristics of the candidate and not on the party. The role of parties in nominating candidates has also been weakened.

Parties may adapt their policies and messaging to appeal to various demographic coalitions.

The structure of parties has been influenced by:

Parties use communication technology and voter data management to disseminate, control, and clarify political messages and enhance outreach and mobilization efforts.

In comparison to proportional systems, winnertake-all voting districts serve as a structural barrier to third-party and independent candidate success. Winner-take-all voting advantages the two-party system in the U.S.

The incorporation of third-party agendas into platforms of major political parties serves as a barrier to third-party and independent candidate success.

Interest groups may represent very specific or more general interests, and can educate voters and office holders, conduct lobbying, draft legislation, and mobilize membership to apply pressure on and work with legislators and government agencies. Interest groups may also file an amicus curiae brief (a written document submitted as a “friend of the court” to provide additional information for justices to consider when reviewing a case).

In addition to working within party coalitions, interest groups exert influence through iron triangles and issue networks that help interest groups exert influence across political party coalitions.

The inequality of interest group resources affects the amount of influence they may have on the policymaking process.

Single-issue groups, ideological/social movements, and protest movements form with the goal of affecting society and policymaking. 

Competing actors such as interest groups, professional organizations, social movements, the military, and bureaucratic agencies influence policymaking, such as the federal budget process, at key stages and to varying degrees.

Elections and political parties are related to major policy shifts or initiatives, occasionally leading to political realignments of voting constituencies.

The process and outcomes in U.S. presidential elections are affected by:

States can choose how they allocate their electors; most states use a winner-take-all system. Because the results of the Electoral College vote may not be the same as the popular vote nationwide, there is an ongoing debate over the Electoral College.

The process and outcomes in U.S. congressional elections are affected by:

The benefits and drawbacks of modern campaigns are represented by:

Federal legislation and case law pertaining to campaign finance demonstrate the ongoing debate over the role of money in political and free speech, as set forth in:

Debates have increased over free speech and competitive and fair elections related to money and campaign funding (including contributions from individuals, political action committees [PACs], and political parties).

Different types of PACs influence elections and policymaking through fundraising and spending.

Agenda setting takes place when traditional news media, new communication technologies, and advances in social media influence how citizens routinely acquire political information, including news events, investigative journalism, election coverage, and political commentary.

The media’s use of polling results to convey popular levels of trust and confidence in government can affect elections by turning such events into “horse races” based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates.

Political participation is influenced by a variety of media coverage, analysis, and commentary on political events.

The rapidly increasing demand for media and political communications outlets from an ideologically diverse audience have led to debates over media bias and the impact of media ownership and partisan news sites.

The nature of democratic debate and the level of political knowledge among citizens is affected by:

Natural rights (all people have certain rights that cannot be taken away)

A social contract (an implicit agreement among the people in a society to give up some freedoms to maintain social order) 

Popular sovereignty (all government power comes from the consent of its people)

Limited government (a government’s power cannot be absolute)

Separation of powers

Checks and balances

Federalism

Republicanism

Participatory democracy, which emphasizes broad participation in politics and civil society

Pluralist democracy, which emphasizes group-based activism by nongovernmental interests striving for impact on political decision making

Elite democracy, which emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society

Lack of centralized military power to address Shays’ Rebellion

Lack of an executive branch to enforce laws, including taxation

Lack of a national court system

Lack of power to regulate interstate commerce

Lack of the exclusive power to coin money

Great (Connecticut) Compromise, which created a dual (bicameral) system of congressional representation with the House of Representatives based on each state’s population and the Senate representing each state equally

Electoral College, which created a system for electing the president by electors from each state rather than by popular vote or by congressional vote

Three-Fifths Compromise, which provided a formula for calculating a state’s enslaved population for purposes of representation in the House and for taxation

Postponing until 1808 a decision whether to ban the importation of enslaved persons

Agreement to add a Bill of Rights to address concerns of the Anti-Federalists 

Debates about government surveillance resulting from the federal government’s response to the 9/11 attacks

Debates about the role of government in public school education

Revenue sharing (national funding with almost no restrictions to the states on its use and is the least used form of funding)

Block grants (national funding with minimal restrictions to the states on its use and is preferred by the states)

Categorical grants (national funding that is restricted to specific categories of expenditures, is preferred by the national government, and is the most commonly used form of funding)

 Mandates (requirements by the national government of the states)

Passing a federal budget, raising revenue by laying and collecting taxes, borrowing money, and coining money

Declaring war and providing the funds necessary to maintain the armed forces

Determining the process for naturalization by which people can become citizens of the U.S.

Regulating interstate commerce

Creating federal courts and their jurisdictions

Enacting legislation under the authority of the necessary and proper clause

Conducting oversight of the executive branch, including federal agencies in the bureaucracy

In the House, the Speaker is elected by a majority of members and presides over the legislative work in the House. All revenue bills must originate in the House. Rules for debate in the House on a bill are established by the Rules Committee. The House can form a Committee of the Whole in order to expedite debate on bills. An individual representative in the House can file a discharge petition to have a bill brought to the floor for debate, but it is rarely done.

In the Senate, bills are typically brought to the floor by unanimous consent, but a Senator may request a hold on a bill to prevent it from getting to the floor for a vote. During debate, a Senator can use the filibuster (a tactic to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill) or make a motion for cloture (a procedure to end a debate).

When a bill passed by both chambers on the same topic has variation in its wording, a conference committee meets to reconcile those differences.

Mandatory spending is required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. 

Discretionary spending is approved on an annual basis for defense spending, education, and infrastructure. As entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless tax revenues increase, or the budget deficit increases.

A representative who conceives of their role as a trustee will vote on issues based on their own knowledge and judgement.

A representative acting as a delegate sees themselves as an agent of those who elected them and will vote on issues based on the interests of their constituents.

A politico uses a combination of these role conceptions.

Vetoes and pocket vetoes are formal powers that enable the president to check Congress, but vetoes can be overridden with a 2/3 vote while pocket vetoes cannot be overridden with a 2/3 vote.

Foreign policy powers that influence relations with foreign nations are both formal (commander-in-chief and treaties) and informal (executive agreements).

Bargaining and persuasion are informal powers that enable the president to secure congressional action. 

Executive orders allow the president to manage the federal government and are implied by the president’s vested executive power or by power delegated by Congress. 

Signing statements are informal powers that inform Congress and the public of the president’s interpretation of laws passed by Congress and signed by the president.

Cabinet members

Ambassadors

Some positions within the Executive Office of the President

Supreme Court Justices, Court of Appeals judges, and District Court judges

Modern technology, such as social media, allows for rapid responses to political issues.

Nationally broadcast State of the Union messages and the president’s bully pulpit are tools for agenda setting that use the media to influence public views about which policies are the most important.

Article III of the Constitution

Federalist No. 78

Judicial activism asserts that judicial review allows the courts to overturn current Constitutional and case precedent or invalidate legislative or executive acts. 

Judicial restraint asserts that judicial review should be constrained to decisions that adhere to current Constitutional and case precedent.

Congressional legislation to modify the impact of prior Supreme Court decisions 

Ratification of a Constitutional amendment 

Judicial appointments and confirmations which may shift the ideological balance of the court

The president and states delaying implementation of a Supreme Court decision

Enacting legislation to limit the cases the Supreme Court can hear on appeal by removing the court’s jurisdiction over a case

Writing and enforcing regulations

Issuing fines

Testifying before Congress

Forming iron triangles (alliances of congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that are prominent in specific policy areas)

Creating issue networks (temporary coalitions that form to promote a common issue or agenda)

Department of Homeland Security

Department of Transportation

Department of Veterans Affairs 

Department of Education

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Federal Elections Commission (FEC)

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Review, monitoring, and supervision of bureaucratic agencies

Investigation and committee hearings of bureaucratic activity

Power of the purse (the ability of Congress to check the bureaucracy by appropriating or withholding funds)

Time, place, and manner regulations that impose restrictions such as limits on the time of day an event can be held, limits on where an event can be held, and limits on the noise levels at an event

Limitations on some obscene and offensive communication. 

Protections against defamation (language that harms the reputation of another) including libel (written communication) and slander (oral communication).

Restrictions on speech that create a clear and present danger and subsequent interpretations which have refined those restrictions.

The right to legal counsel, speedy and public trial, and an impartial jury

Protection against warrantless searches of cell phone data under the Fourth Amendment

Limitations placed on bulk collection of telecommunication metadata (Patriot and USA Freedom Acts)

Dr. Martin Luther King’s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” and the civil rights movement of the 1960s

The National Organization for Women and the women’s rights movement

The pro-life and pro-choice movements 

Supreme Court decisions which declared that race-based school segregation violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in public places, provides for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and makes employment discrimination illegal.

Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. 

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits racial discrimination in voting.

State laws and Supreme Court holdings based on the “separate but equal” doctrine restricting African American access to the same restaurants, hotels, schools, etc., as the majority white population

Court decisions declaring that race-based school segregation violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause

The Supreme Court upholding the rights of the majority in cases that limit and prohibit majority-minority districting

Opinion polls (measuring public opinion on various issues)

Benchmark polls (creating baseline views of a candidate)

Tracking polls (following how views of a candidate change during a campaign)

Exit polls (collecting data on why people voted the way they did)

Accurate sampling methods, including calculating a margin of error

Neutral framing of questions (specific and unbiased wording of questions)

Accurate reporting (clear reporting and conclusions that can be supported by the data)

Importance of public opinion as a source of political influence in a given election or policy debate

Reliability and veracity of public opinion data

The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people.

The 15th Amendment granted African American men the right to vote.

The 17th Amendment changed the practice for electing Senators from a vote by state legislatures to a direct vote by the people. 

The 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote.

The 24th Amendment eliminated poll taxes, a structural barrier to voting.

The 26th Amendment lowered the voting age to 18.

Rational choice voting refers to individuals who base their decisions on what is perceived to be in their best interest.

Retrospective voting refers to individuals who decide whether the party or candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past.

Prospective voting refers to individuals who vote based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future.

Straight ticket voting refers to individuals who vote for all of the candidates from one political party on a ballot. 

Differences in state-controlled elections (the hours polls are open, Voter ID laws, variations in funding for polling places and workers, variations in types of voting allowed, such as voting by mail, absentee voting, and early voting)

Variations in voter registration laws and procedures (registering in-person, online, or automatically)

Election type (more turnout for presidential elections than midterm elections)

Party identification and ideological orientation

Candidate characteristics

Contemporary political issues

Religious beliefs or affiliation, age, gender, race and ethnicity, and other demographic characteristics

Political parties

Interest groups

Elections

Media

Mobilization and education of voters

Party platforms

Candidate recruitment

Campaign management, including fundraising and media strategy

The committee and party leadership systems in legislatures

Critical elections (elections in which there is a realignment of political party support among voters)

Campaign finance law

Changes in communication and data management technology

Some interest groups, such as AARP, have large memberships, are able to mobilize those members, and possess access to large financial reserves.

Some interest groups have more direct and more frequent access to important people in the policy process.

Free riders are individuals who benefit from the work of an interest group without providing financial support. Interest groups may deal with this issue by providing selective benefits, goods and services that are only available to members, to encourage more people to join. 

Incumbency advantage phenomenon (benefits current officeholders possess over challengers)

Open and closed primaries (voting processes to elect candidates)

Caucuses (closed meetings of party members to select candidates or decide policy) 

Party conventions

General (presidential) elections

The Electoral College

Incumbency advantage phenomenon

Open and closed primaries

Caucuses

General (presidential and midterm) elections.

Dependence on professional consultants 

Rising campaign costs and intensive fundraising efforts

Duration of election cycles

Impact of and reliance on social media for campaign communication and fundraising

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, which was an effort to ban soft money and reduce attack ads with “Stand by Your Ad” provision: “I’m [candidate’s name] and I approve this message”

Supreme Court decisions that ruled political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment

Increased media choices

Ideologically oriented programming

Consumer-driven media outlets and emerging technologies that reinforce existing beliefs 

Uncertainty over the credibility of news sources and information